A taxonomy of community living skills.

A taxonomy of community living skills. ABSTRACT: A survey of experts in mental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. was conducted toassess the forthcoming Taxonomy taxonomy:see classification. taxonomyIn biology, the classification of organisms into a hierarchy of groupings, from the general to the particular, that reflect evolutionary and usually morphological relationships: kingdom, phylum, class, order, of Community Living Skills, a guide forcurriculum developers and administrators. Items in five domains(personal maintenance and development, homemaking and community life,vocational, leisure, and travel) were rated. Responses were generallyfavorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. . Comments and suggestions made by the experts provided a basisfor a revision of the taxonomy and its theoretical exposition. Fl Theneed for instruction of persons with mental retardation was formallyidentified by Itard, and later brought to this country by Seguin(Scheerenberger, 1983). It has been more than 180 years since Itardpublished the Wild Boy of Aveyron (1806), and in that time the idea hasmoved in and out of salience sa��li��ence? also sa��li��en��cyn. pl. sa��li��en��ces also sa��li��en��cies1. The quality or condition of being salient.2. A pronounced feature or part; a highlight.Noun 1. among workers in the field, but it hasnever been completely out of sight. Over the last quarter of a century, instruction has become anincreasingly important issue. For example, starting in 1959, each of themanuals on terminology and classification of mental retardationpublished by the American Association on Mental Deficiency mental deficiencyn.See mental retardation. (Heber, 1959,1961; Grossman, 1973; 1983) has stated that retarded re��tard��ed?adj.1. Often Offensive Affected with mental retardation.2. Occurring or developing later than desired or expected; delayed. persons who learnto exhibit sufficient "adaptive behavior Adaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is used to adapt to another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized by a kind of behavior that allows an individual to substitute an unconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive. " can no longer becalled "retarded." Such statements reflect the perception thatthe need for instruction is a central factor in mental retardation;indeed, since 1973, the concept has been reflected in federal and statelaws, for example, in P.L. 94-142. Recently researchers have focused onthe need for instruction in community living skills e.g., Brown,Branston-McC]ean, et al., 1979; Bruininks, Meyers, Sigford, & Lakin,1981; Gold, 1980; Wehman & Hill, 1982a, 1982b; Wilcox & Bellamy,1987). CURRICULUM VERSUS PROGRAM Research in instructional developmentsince the mid-1970s has largely taken the form of program developmentfor individuals (e.g., Brown, Falvey, et al., 1980). However, programdevelopment is not synonymous with synonymous withadjective equivalent to, the same as, identical to, similar to, identified with, equal to, tantamount to, interchangeable with, one and the same as curriculum development: a program, asdefined in the rules and regulations emanating from P.L. 94-142 andSection 504 of the Amendments to the Rehabilitation rehabilitation:see physical therapy. Act of 1973, is astatement of what will be taught to a specific learner over a specifiedperiod of time. A curriculum, on the other hand, is a statement of whatanyone would have to learn to reach a goal. Curricula can be used toguide the development of programs, but programs cannot be used to guidethe development of curricula. Confusion on this point is widespread, andmany program development guides have been labeled as curricula (e.g.,Wilcox & Bellamy, 1987). It is possible that this confusion is onesource for the lack of progress in curriculum development in recenttimes. THE INSTRUCTIONAL PARADIGM At least since the beginning of the20th century, curriculum theorists have operated within what can betermed the instructional paradigm (Figure 1). This system of thoughtholds that the first step in curriculum development is to establish theaim of instruction, or what instruction will attempt to teach. Given acontext, the goals of instruction can be established, and instructionalsequences leading to those goals developed. Once the instructionalpathways to the goals have been established, instruction can begin. Despite strong statements and sentiments on the need forinstruction of persons with mental retardation, few curricula congruent con��gru��ent?adj.1. Corresponding; congruous.2. Mathematicsa. Coinciding exactly when superimposed: congruent triangles.b. with the mainstream of instructional thought have appeared in the field(the major exception has been the work of those espousing careereducation, e.g., Kokaska & Brolin, 1986). That is, mainstreamcurriculum theorists hold that it is necessary to establish clear goalsof instruction before trying to develop curricula (Dewey, 1902; Popham& Baker, 1970; Smith, Stanley, & Shores, 1957; Taba, 1962;Tanner The code name for the Xeon version of the Pentium III chip. See Xeon. & Tanner, 1980; Tyler, 1957). Unfortunately, those of us whowork with retarded persons seem to have missed this point over theyears, and a clearly stated, complete, coherent, and commonlyagreed-upon statement of instructional goals for retarded persons isnowhere to be found. This is not to say that attempts to specifycurriculum goals have not been made. On the contrary, many workers haveattempted to state goals in one form or another (e.g., Brolin, 1978;Goldstein, 1974). Despite these efforts, there is little agreement inthe field that instructional goals must be specified apart fromindividuals, let alone which goals would provide appropriateinstructional endpoints for special education and rehabilitation.Inevitably, curricula for mentally retarded Noun 1. mentally retarded - people collectively who are mentally retarded; "he started a school for the retarded"developmentally challenged, retarded persons must remain merelytrivial if there are no clear instructional goals to serve as curriculumbenchmarks. It is clear that a major statement of instructional goals isrequired if the instructional thrust of the field is to be carried tofulfillment. Accordingly, over a 6-year period, working with severaldifferent groups of persons in various curriculum development projects,I have designed and constructed a taxonomy of community living skillsthat provides a comprehensive, clear, and rational statement of theendpoints of instruction for retarded persons (Dever, 1988). Thistaxonomy can be used to make decisions about the contents of a potentialcurriculum, and it provides a set of instructional benchmarks thatcurriculum development teams can use to guide their efforts. This article (a) presents the structure of the taxonomy and (b)presents data from a national survey conducted among professionals inthe field. CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE TAXONOMY Aim The aim ofcurricula developed under the aegis aegis(ē`jĭs), in Greek mythology, weapon of Zeus and Athena. It possessed the power to terrify and disperse the enemy or to protect friends. of the taxonomy is to make learnersindependent. This aim has been expressed by many curriculum developers(e.g., Goldstein, 1974), but it has never been defined in behavioralterms. As a result, it has remained a vague concept that has not beenuseful in guiding curriculum development efforts. The problem that had to be solved was that nobody is trulyindependent: We all depend on others to some degree-on those whotransport goods to the markets, on those who manufacture and sellmachines and supplies, and on those who work in service occupations. Inturn, many people depend on us for various things. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently ,rather than being independent, we are interdependent; that is, we arepart of a fabric that constitutes the society. The key to the definition of independence that is the foundation ofthe taxonomy lies in an observation made by Roger Barker Roger Garlock Barker (1903, Macksburg, Iowa - 1990) was a social scientist, a founder of environmental psychology and a leading figure in the field for decades, perhaps best known for his development of the concept of behavior settings. (1968). Thebehavior of a person in any location is more similar to that of otherpersons in that location than it is to the behavior of the same personin different locations. People, it seems, behave in very predictableways: When a person goes to a supermarket, he or she does the thingsthat people in supermarkets do; when a person goes to a church, he orshe does the things that people in the church do. As long as peoplebehave in predictable ways, everything seems to go smoothly. But whenbehavior is out of place, it attracts attention that can be verynegative. For example, if a person goes to a supermarket and does thethings people do in church, that person would attract negativeattention. The behavioral predictability of persons in behavior settingsallowed the development of a behavioral definition of independence thatnow can serve as the aim of instruction: Independence is exhibiting behavior patterns appropriate to the behavior settings that are frequented by others of the person's age and social status in such a manner that the individual is not perceived as requiring assistance because of his behavior. (Dever, 1983) In other words, if a person can go where others go, do what they dothere, and not look out of place because of his or her behavior, thatperson would be seen by others as part of the fabric of the community.To the extent that the person cannot do these things, he or she would beperceived as dependent. Therefore, instruction should focus on teachingpersons with retardation retardation:see mental retardation. to do what people in the community do in thecourse of their ordinary lives. The next step was to develop a statement of typical routines oflife's activities. Analysis of these routines, in turn, yielded thelist of goals and skills that now constitutes the taxonomy. Content TheTaxonomy of Community Living Skills provides an organized statement ofskills, the performance of which will allow a person to become part ofthe fabric of life in an American community. Because they focus on thecommunity and its requirements, the skills listed in the taxonomyprovide instructional goals for anyone who must be taught to become afunctioning member of a community. The list was developed by firstdetailing the daily life through which each of us must go, and thenanalyzing the skills that must be exhibited to get through the day, theweek, the month, the seasons, and the year. Prerequisite and lead-up skills are not listed in the taxonomy; forexample, there is no mention of communication, motor, or academicskills. The reason for this apparent omission is that such skills arenot goals in themselves, but rather, intermediate steps to the goals.They are sometimes, but not always, prerequisites to goal attainment.Despite the impression given by many existing curricula, it is notnecessary for all learners to develop great control over these skills:Many low-functioning persons have been able to attain many of the goalslisted in the taxonomy without having gained complete control over them.Organization The goals are organized in five domains, as shown in Figure2. The domains represented by the three sides of the large trianglecontain the skills that must be exhibited in community settings. Theyare the skills in the homemaking and community life, vocational, andleisure domains. In the center of the community are the skills everyonemust learn in order to care for himself or herself, that is, thepersonal maintenance and development domain. Finally, the travel domainis represented by the large circle that connects the person with thecommunity. The five domains represent the person as he or she lives,works, plays, and moves through the community. Major Goals Figure 3contains a list of the major goals of instruction as they appear in thetaxonomy. In general, there is not much difference between thesestatements and those found in various curricula that have been developedfor use with retarded persons, with the exception of the following.Completeness. The Taxonomy of Community Living Skills appears to providethe most complete statement of instructional goals available at thepresent time. Many curricula that specify goals (many do not list goals)have listed some of the skill areas that are presented in the taxonomy,but no curriculum lists them all. in fact, most curricula tend to havevery constrained con��strain?tr.v. con��strained, con��strain��ing, con��strains1. To compel by physical, moral, or circumstantial force; oblige: felt constrained to object.See Synonyms at force.2. lists of skills, and typically focus on only a smallfraction of the goals found in the taxonomy. Even within thisconstraint, curricula have a tendency not to develop an instructionalarea fully. For example, many curricula focus on personal maintenanceskills, but few list "first aid procedures" as something thatretarded persons must learn to perform. Obviously, persons who do notknow rudimentary rudimentary/ru��di��men��ta��ry/ (roo?di-men��tah-re)1. imperfectly developed.2. vestigial.ru��di��men��ta��ryadj.1. first aid procedures will continue to requireassistance from other people and will always remain somewhat dependent.Therefore, instruction in first aid and other skills that are oftenoverlooked is a requirement for community-oriented instruction. The fact that no curriculum contains the range of goals provided inthe taxonomy is not a reflection on the competence of curriculumdevelopers. Rather, the incompleteness is due to a problem inherent inthe curriculum development process: Personnel who develop curricula toteach people to become part of the fabric of the community must dealwith the fact that all such curricula must be developed for specificgroups in specific situations. No single curriculum can respond to theneeds of all learners in all locations. In fact, the only curricula thatcan apply to retarded persons in different locations would be those thatfocus on general prerequisites and lead-up skills, such as motor orlanguage skills. The completeness of the taxonomy provides a set of benchmarks forall curriculum developers. Users can select the goals that areappropriate for their learners and their agencies, and develop curriculaleading to the goals they have selected. Glitches. Service agenciesgenerally do not require retarded persons to deal with unexpectedevents. In most locations, any problems that arise are handled by staff,and learners often do not discover that a problem has occurred (letalone be required to deal with it). This approach is not productive: Itis an unfortunate fact that everyone has days when nothing goes right;for example, when we start the day by breaking a shoelace, it sometimesproves to be the high point of the day. If a person does not learn tocope with life's minor problems, he or she will always requireextraordinary assistance. The fact that everyone has bad days indicatesthat retarded persons either should be taught to cope with them or beforced to remain dependent on others. Unfortunately, instruction incoping with such problems is seldom provided. The concept of glitches is not new in curriculum circles: Otherworkers have focused on the fact that life's unexpected problemsexist, and that people must learn to cope with them to become part ofthe fabric of the community. For example, Robert Zuckerman, at KentState University, calls them ,unanticipated events" (Zuckerman,personal communication). Despite the fact that the idea has beenpresented elsewhere, it is not generally perceived as a curriculumfocus. It is, however, a major focus of the taxonomy: Each domain listsglitches with which everyone must learn to cope. In general terms, theyfall into the categories of (a) problems with time (e.g., missing thebus and being late for appointments); (b) problems with depletion ofmaterials (e.g., finding that the soap has been used up after turningthe shower on and getting all wet); and (c) problems with equipmentbreakdowns (e.g., a broken shoelace). Skills Each of the major goatareas has been analyzed to provide lists of skills, the performance ofwhich will move the learner toward the goals. The performance of theseskills may or may not be required of a specific learner in a specificcommunity setting. For example, Figure 4 presents the list of skills forthe Homemaking and Community Life goal H 11 B: Keep Fabric Items Cleanand Repaired. Included in this list are the skills of cleaning carpets,curtains, and furniture fabrics. Many learners will not have to learnthese skills to survive in the community; however, some will. Therefore,they are included. It is necessary to keep in mind that the taxonomy wasdesigned to be used by curriculum developers in many differentsituations. Therefore, an effort was made during development to avoidsins of omission. Accordingly, the list of skills will prove to be morecomplete than is necessary in many instances. Use of the Taxonomy TheTaxonomy of Community Living Skills is not a curriculum: It is anorganized statement of instructional goals that curriculum developerscan use as benchmarks toward which to aim their curricula. Manycurricula will not list skills as they appear in the taxonomy, butrather, skills that lead in the direction of the goals (e.g., those foryoung children or for severely physically disabled persons). Thetaxonomy is every bit as applicable to these curricula as it is to thosethat focus directly on teaching the endpoints; that is, instructionalbeginnings are impossible to find in the absence of clearly statedendpoints. The taxonomy was developed for use in constructing curricula forseverely retarded persons. Its use is probably wider than this statementsuggests, however, because retarded persons are not the only ones whoexperience difficulty in learning to live in the community. Other groupsalso have this problem: less severely retarded persons, persons withphysical or sensory disabilities, released prisoners, and many immigrantand other non-English-speaking populations. Instructional personneldeveloping curricula for any of these groups should find the goalslisted in the taxonomy useful. SURVEY RESULTS A national survey wasconducted on a field-test version of the taxonomy (Dever, 1986). Therespondent cohort cohort/co��hort/ (ko��hort)1. in epidemiology, a group of individuals sharing a common characteristic and observed over time in the group.2. was gathered from the lists of reviewers in thefollowing journals: Journal of the Association for Persons with SevereHandicaps; Mental Retardation; and Education and Training of theMentally Retarded. Reviewers known to be in fields such as medicine,social work, law, and other fields not directly focused on instructionwere eliminated from the list. In addition, a list of faculty members ofcolleges and universities in the area of mental retardation waspurchased from The Council for Exceptional Children. Again, names ofpersons known not to have a professional focus on instruction wereeliminated. The final list of 114 names constituted a group of highlyexperienced respondents, many of whom have high visibility in the field.This group provided a cohort of "experts" in the field ofmental retardation who would be able to render a professional critiqueof the taxonomy. In the spring of 1986, a copy of the field-test version of thetaxonomy was sent to each of the respondents along with a request torespond to a 7-item questionnaire on the taxonomy. The respondents wereasked to score each of the following items on a scale from I (Poor) to 5(Very Good). I .Coherence coherence,constant phase difference in two or more Waves over time. Two waves are said to be in phase if their crests and troughs meet at the same place at the same time, and the waves are out of phase if the crests of one meet the troughs of another. of the taxonomic tax��o��nom��ic? also tax��o��nom��i��caladj.Of or relating to taxonomy: a taxonomic designation.tax model. 2. Appropriateness ofthe five domains. 3. Completeness of the taxonomy in accounting for all tasks in the community. 4. The concept of glitches as itappears in each domain. 5. Relationship of goals and objectives i.e., skills) to functional community living. 6. Relationship of objectives(i.e., skills) to goals. 7. Usefulness of the taxonomy for instruction. A follow-up letter follow-up lettern → carta recordatoriawas sent to all respondents who had not repliedby August I of that year. A total of 59 respondents returned thecompleted questionnaire (52% return). Many respondents provided criticalcomments in addition to scores for the items on the questionnaire. Threesent notes explaining that they did not feel qualified to critique thedocument, and four passed the questionnaire on to others whom they feltto be more qualified or who had more time to make a response. The results of the survey, which were used to modify both thetaxonomy and the introductory chapters, are presented in Table 1. As canbe seen from this table, the general response was favorable, with allquestions obtaining a mean score of nearly 4" and above on the5-point scale. The two lowest scores were those referring to completeness" ofthe taxonomy, and usefulness." Both sets of scores were lowered bythe relatively great number of 1-3" scores for these items (22. 1% and 23.7%, respectively). Perusal of the comments made relative tothese items indicates that a number of respondents considered thetaxonomy to be a curriculum, and as such, saw it as incomplete. Forexample, several respondents noted the lack of motor or communicationskills in the taxonomy (which are precursors precursors, (prēkur´srz),n.pl particles or compounds that precede something. to the goals, not goals perse). This response caused the author to rewrite re��write?v. re��wrote , re��writ��ten , re��writ��ing, re��writesv.tr.1. To write again, especially in a different or improved form; revise.2. the introductorychapters of the taxonomy completely, and to ask Dr. Dennis Knapczyk towrite a chapter on how to use it to develop curricula. These actionsshould help users of the taxonomy be more clear both on what it is andhow it can and cannot be used. Despite this problem, 74. 1 % of therespondents gave the taxonomy scores of 4-5 on "completeness,"and 72.9% gave scores of 4-5 for "usefulness." Originally, the skills listed under the goals were called"objectives." This terminology changed as a result of commentsmade by the respondents: The items referring to objectives" shouldnow be read as referring to the lists of skills found under each goal.The high scores given to items 5 X. = 4,48) and 6 X. = 4.47) indicatethat the respondents thought that the skills related to the goals, andalso to daily life in the community. The concept of "glitches" received high scores, althoughseveral respondents suggested that the name be changed because it seemedtoo "slangy slang?n.1. A kind of language occurring chiefly in casual and playful speech, made up typically of short-lived coinages and figures of speech that are deliberately used in place of standard terms for added raciness, humor, irreverence, or ." The decision was made to retain it, however. Itis a Yiddish word (Rosten, 1970), that the Oxford English Dictionary Oxford English Dictionary(OED) great multi-volume historical dictionary of English. [Br. Hist.: Caught in the Web of Words]See : Lexicography states was brought into English by technicians who used it to refer totransient electrical surges that cause malfunctions in electricalequipment. It entered common usage during transmissions from space bythe astronauts who used it to refer to unexpected minor problems withthe spacecraft machinery. It has since been used to refer to minorproblems experienced by people in everyday life. As such, it appears tocapture the concept intended as no other word could. Therefore, its usewas retained. Finally, the items on "coherence" and"appropriateness" (items I and 2) received high scores X. =4.29 and 4.55, respectively), indicating that the respondents believedthe taxonomy to be well organized. This response was not unexpected: Theorganization is quite similar to many others used in various curricula,and should be familiar to most persons in the field. CONCLUSION TheTaxonomy of Community Living Skills represents a serious attempt tofocus instruction for retarded individuals on life in the community, andto assist curriculum developers in all settings to coordinate theirwork. As stated previously, the taxonomy is not a curriculum, butrather, a statement of goals that can assist curriculum developers inthe work of developing approaches to teach people to be part of thefabric of the community. In a very real sense, the function of thetaxonomy is to serve as a guide for curriculum development. The purposeand use of the taxonomy are reflected in the following statement by JohnDewey: To see the outcome is to know in what direction the present experience is moving. . . . The far-away point, which is of no significance to us simply as far-away, becomes of huge importance the moment we take it as defining a present direction of movement . . . it is no remote and distant result to be achieved, but a guiding method in dealing with the present. (Dewey, 1902, p. 18) The data from the survey indicate that experts in the fieldperceive the taxonomy as a potentially useful document. There is stillmuch work yet to do, however, and those who begin to use it will findthat it opens a Pandora's Box of questions, such as "Whichagencies should take responsibility for instruction in specificareas?" and "How should curricula for very young children orvery severely handicapped persons relate to those for older and moremildly handicapped persons?" The answers to these and otherquestions will not come easily, but they must be asked. The Taxonomy ofCommunity Living Skills provides the first step in the process.REFERENCES Barker, R. (1962). Ecological psychology Ecological psychology is a term claimed by a number of schools of psychology. However, the two main ones are one on the writings of J. J. Gibson, and another on the work of Roger G. Barker, Herb Wright and associates at the University of Kansas in Lawrence. : Concepts and methods for studying the environment of human behavior. 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