Friday, October 7, 2011

How to organize oneself within history: Pehr Tham and his relation to antiquity at the end of the 18th century.

How to organize oneself within history: Pehr Tham and his relation to antiquity at the end of the 18th century. Recently a doctoral dissertation was submitted to the Department ofArchaeology at Uppsala University Uppsala University (Swedish Uppsala universitet) is a public university in Uppsala, Sweden, 64 kilometres (40 miles) north-northwest of Stockholm.[1] Founded in 1477, it claims to be the oldest university in Scandinavia, outdating the University of Copenhagen . The author, Michel Notelid, presentedand defended a text, called Den omvanda diskursen (The Second Glance: Astudy of transitions in the history of archaeological discipline). Thiswork (Notelid 2000; 2001) represents quite a new way of looking at thediscipline's past, with the serious ambition to understand theromantic approach to prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to in its own right, and not primarily as afumbling, imaginative and pre-scientific start of a new discipline. Thearchaeological community was puzzled by this work, and very few scholarswere able to read and appreciate this distinctive and unexpectedperspective. There were obstacles, and possibly the most difficult onewas the very language used. This language was in itself a sort ofromantic reconstruction, which did not clearly indicate the differencebetween the plain text and passages of citations. The author seemed tomerge with his references. The situation was even more complicated,however, and the difficulties probably demonstrated how we are trappedwithin our own ideology of education and social and intellectualposition, which guarantees a certain understanding -- at the same timeas it excludes other kinds of contact and understanding. This originaland bold work deserves to be more widely spread. It touches on generalissues far beyond the case of Sweden, (1) and it also confirms that,compared with the problematic era of romanticism romanticism,term loosely applied to literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and 19th cent.Characteristics of RomanticismResulting in part from the libertarian and egalitarian ideals of the French Revolution, the romantic movements had , it is far easier forus to sympathize with Verb 1. sympathize with - share the suffering ofcompassionate, condole with, feel for, pitygrieve, sorrow - feel griefcommiserate, sympathise, sympathize - to feel or express sympathy or compassion the period which preceded it. Presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. this is afeature of modernist thinking, in which the 18th century has become asort of favourite era for our present (mainly bourgeois) imagination andhistorical consumption. The Age of Enlightenment The Enlightenment (French: Si��cle des Lumi��res; German: Aufkl?rung; Italian: Illuminismo; Portuguese: is still active in ourbasic approach, and when scientific archaeology began just before themiddle of the 19th century it seemed as if the effects of romanticismcould be put aside so that a steady course could be kept to the present(Frangsmyr 1981). Romantic archaeology, left on the margins, needs to belooked at again. On romanticism and archaeology In Swedish universities, unlike the Royal court, Enlightenmentinfluences were in general rather limited. The ideology of usefulnessthat prevailed there brought together a worldly wish to discover anddescribe and prepare for use all the resources of nature, with aclerical wish to understand the depth and diversity in the creation ofthe Lord (Broberg 1999: 55). This resulted in the promotion of areason-based faith, which soon gave birth to occultism, magneticism andsuch mystical currents difficult for the official state church tohandle. At the turn of the 18th century the intellectual and scientificinitiatives of the Royal court now became a vital part of the academicworld, and the universities slowly begun to acquire an arrangement wecan still recognize (Runeby 1988). The early romantic era was mainly anacademic affair, inspired by German philosophers such as Schiller,Fichte and the von Schelling brothers. The faith of God as supplied bythe Enlightenment was criticized on protestant grounds, and argumentswere presented for a view of the world which included everything, as anexistential and structural unity. The Enlightenment's dependence on observations, whichsometimes seemed to lead to pure arbitrariness, was opposed. Realknowledge could not be reached empirically. The concept of similaritywas too undetermined and vague to be the ground for observations andclassifications. The goal of all disciplines, including the naturalsciences, was not aimed at securing better industry or betteragriculture, but rather at making life as a whole understandable(Eriksson 1962; 1979; 1999). Through boldness, feeling, contemplation,intuition and vision, but also scepticism scep��ti��cism?n.Variant of skepticism.skepticism, scepticisma personal disposition toward doubt or incredulity of facts, persons, or institutions. See also 312. PHILOSOPHY. — skeptic, n. , a better, more truthful,united knowledge could be reached, so as to unveil the spirit of nature,man and history. With all its diversity and its lack of a clear, unified politicalcontent and direction, early romanticism is certainly difficult tounderstand. In the long run, the main consequences of romanticism forAcademia lie probably in its structural reorganization of positions andvalues. As the younger academic teachers turned more directly to thestudent body, they acquired audiences by their ability to attractlisteners. Professors became more socially respected, as an elected andpaid intellectual force. Also the students now sought to combine theirstudies with a social commitment, first for the students' way oflife, and then within the wider society. Over time the students became anew, more radical collective political power, which created uneasinessin society as they begun to publish in journals and newspapers andappear in front of a (bourgeois) public (Runeby 1988; Eriksson 1999). The early romantic current in a limited sense had already lost itsstrength around 1830. The individualists behind the movement were toodiverse, and too concerned with their own individuality, theirpersonage. Claims for rigorous scientific work could not be fulfilled.Bold speculations could not in the end be strengthened by empiricalfoundations. Politically, the knowledge produced appeared too restrictedin the eyes of a limited, but growing part of society. When liberal andmore democratic ideas evolved in industrial society, romanticism wasfound to have nothing to offer but the keeping of old privileges. So far as archaeology is concerned, the university of Lund was themost important from the end of the 18th century to the middle of the19th. Proximity to Copenhagen was used for mutual study trips and earlyDanish archaeology was influential even before the introduction of thethree-age system. At the university in Lund a special intellectualmilieu for archaeology was created, with a historical university museumand a nascent archaeological activity around the chair of history. Thecentral person there was Professor N.H. Sjoborg (1767-1838), who led theway in classification efforts within archaeology, mainly for monuments.He also engaged in the saving and restoration of damaged ancientremains, and he was consequently appointed general inspector of allancient monuments in Sweden (and also in Norway). His travels forinspections and protections were of course linked with a very longantiquarian an��ti��quar��i��an?n.One who studies, collects, or deals in antiquities.adj.1. Of or relating to antiquarians or to the study or collecting of antiquities.2. Dealing in or having to do with old or rare books. tradition, concentrating on highly visible ancientconstructions or specific categories such as runic (jargon) runic - Obscure, consisting of runes.VMS fans sometimes refer to Unix as "RUnix". Unix fans return the compliment by expanding VMS to "Very Messy Syntax" or "Vachement Mauvais Systeme" (French; literally "Cowlike Bad System", idiomatically "Bitchy Bad System"). stones. Sjoborggathered in Lund several students interested in history and archaeology,some of whom became well-known and respected colleagues: J.G. Liljegren,for example, was appointed state antiquarian close to the court inStockholm, and S. Nilsson remained in Lund as a zoological professorwith the belief that the early period of humanity was part of naturalhistory. The agenda was set (Hildebrand 1937; Schuck 1943-44). Antiquarianjourneys and inventories, and sometimes even excavations, were madewithin a new perception of landscape, where the useful and pastorallands of the enlightenment were replaced by a heroic, austeretopography, composed of boulders and bedrock, mountains and fields,turbulent rapids, twisted trees -- a dramatic and unpleasant scenerywhere the ancient monuments visited marked significant accents. Ruinswere, of course, among the chosen monuments, but maybe more as defyingtime rather than as an emblem of the perishable per��ish��a��ble?adj.Subject to decay, spoilage, or destruction.n.Something, especially foodstuff, subject to decay or spoilage. Often used in the plural. . Ancient remains were tobe kept and taken care of, and publishing was a way to guarantee theirfuture existence. Heritage work became a way of establishing a relationto the monuments, a sort of care-taking as a contemporary cult.Negotiating with the prehistoric and historic remains the antiquarianadministration, became part of the construction of the nation (Fehrman1956). It is difficult to identify a totally committed Swedish romanticarchaeologist. Most persons within this field of interest rather showinfluences from many currents, and they work out their own ideologicaland practical rules of conduct. Some lived for a long time and adjustedtheir interest according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. prevalent ideas: S. Nilsson almost neverdied and became a bridge over to the generation of Montelius. Thebiologist, teacher and antiquarian J.H. Wallman is a good candidate tobe seen as a more obvious romantic person. In a letter from 1813 hedisparages Swedish natural historians: `All a priori a prioriIn epistemology, knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to a posteriori (or empirical) knowledge, which derives from experience. attempts toconstruct a science of natural history are therefore to these wisepeople the height of all insanity' (in Eriksson 1962: 60).Wallman's contempt for the empirical is evident; he is looking forhigher levels. He thus conceived the earliest times of humankind as aparadisiacal existence where contact with original wisdom was direct.The archaeological task was to regain this insight. His vision had alsoan apocalyptic relation as the contemporary anxiety is heralding thelast day, after which a new elucidated era in the history of mankindwill return (Eriksson 1979: 120). Although almost all archaeological activities at that time wereindividually initiated, several societies existed where archaeologicaland heritage questions could be raised. The best known of these romanticsocieties was the Gothic federation (Gotiska forbundet), created in 1811by mainly academics and ex-students from Uppsala. Housed in Stockholm itbecame an important, but rather closed organization, where the interestfor history in a very broad sense could be worked on (Stenroth 1972).The membership, which rose to over 100, included several ofSjoborg's former students. Persons with antiquarian interests couldalso be elected, such as Per Tham and his private antiquarian Hilfeling.In this romantic society, it was understood that the spirit orself-confidence of mankind is of the same quality as that of nature, anactive polarity (1) The direction of charged particles, which may determine the binary status of a bit.(2) In micrographics, the change in the light to dark relationship of an image when copies are made. , a result of contracting and expanding forces. Historydemonstrates an inner intention, which appears behind perplexing per��plex?tr.v. per��plexed, per��plex��ing, per��plex��es1. To confuse or trouble with uncertainty or doubt. See Synonyms at puzzle.2. To make confusedly intricate; complicate. historical events. Investigations of an empirical kind cannot give anadequate, good foundation for the understanding of history. Thespiritual intention is most clear in the life of the state which formsthe most noble object of history. History then is not the play ofcoincidences but an existential form, guided by design and purpose.History wants something with humankind and it is the academic task tofind that out. A leading figure of this movement, E.G. Geijer, wrote:`Every people lives not only in the present, but also in its memories:and it lives through them. Every generation reproduces itself not onlyphysically but also morally in another: it hands over its customs, itsconcepts. It is this on-going tradition which at different times alwaysmakes a people to a one and only, it is its unbroken consciousness ofitself as a nation' (Geijer 1923: 142). Archaeological research during the romantic era was thus pursuedwithin the wider context of historical studies, including poeticwritings on Nordic themes, mythology, or in more direct relation tocertain archaeological monuments or artefacts. In the society of thetime archaeology was considered to be a branch of a greater project,nationally directed with an emphasis on the importance of history forforging a common ideology for society. Already before the Age of Enlightenment, there was in Sweden awell-organized ecclesiastical network for obtaining regional informationabout the state of the art in the parishes, notably through inspectiontrips by the bishops. This organization was among the most thoroughwithin the kingdom. At the same time, the close connections whichprevailed between the church and education and the church and the kingalso made it practical to use this network for other types ofinvestigations. Remarkably, the first of these investigations wasantiquarian, the interest in surveying ancient buildings and monuments.At the beginning, very few individuals were sent out and an overall plandid not exist. A plan for an inventory was created early in the 17thcentury, probably in competition with what was going on in Denmark atthat time. A special archive was established, with the help of localclergymen and an administrative centre Administrative Centre (in Norwegian administrativt senter; in Portuguese centro administrativo) is often used in several countries to refer to a county town, or other seat of regional/local government, or the place where the central administration of a commune is (The Collegium col��le��gi��um?n. pl. col��le��gi��a or col��le��gi��ums1. An executive council or committee of equally empowered members, especially one supervising an industry, commissariat, or other organization in the Soviet Union. for Antiquities),to receive dedicated reports, `Rannsakningar' (Schuck 1932-1944).These surveys were undertaken following a list of set questions, but notraining was included (Stable 1960; 1969; Stahle & Stahre 1992). Thequality of the reports was therefore quite variable. However, thistradition of looking for and describing local and regional ancient findsand monuments did go on among the clergymen for almost 200 years. Afterabout 150 years, the content of the surveys sometimes changed and theantiquarian information was included in more general descriptions of theparishes, with more emphasis on topography, industry, natural resourcesand rural life-ways (Adolfsson 2000). These more general reports werenot sent to the Archive of Antiquities, but rather to the Academy ofNatural Sciences and to learned societies. In this tradition can berecognized persons like Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who had been a pupilof Kilian Stobaeus (1690-1742), the organizer of a survey according todetailed instructions (cf. Uggla 1932). All these activities were partof a drive to map the nation and its various resources: just as thestate was engaged in this enterprise, so were private individuals. Themethod was the same: travelling, observation, interviews and descriptionin text and image. The results of these activities today constitute themain sources of information for the archives of The National Board ofAntiquities, which is nowadays more directed towards cartographic car��tog��ra��phy?n.The art or technique of making maps or charts.[French cartographie : carte, map (from Old French, from Latin charta, carta, paper made from papyrus surveys in standardized and also in statistical, comparative forms. Introducing Pehr Tham During the 18th century the majority of Swedes lived in thecountryside. This was also the case with the nobility. There was,however, a tendency to concentrate residential estates around thecapital and near the court. Beyond this melting-pot life was isolated,more simple and aimed at cultivating the land and improving industries.Political changes were far away, and for many Stockholm was not anattractive place to visit nor to live in. News arrived through readingsin the church, through visits, letters and the few, very occasionalnewspapers. At the estates, a sort of autonomous world was created,deriving its income from agriculture, timber and iron works I´ron works`a. 1. See under Iron,a. os> . TheEnlightenment had encouraged the development of farming techniques andarranging new lands for fields. Experimental interest prepared the wayfor better crops, trees and stock. Mansions and, to a lesser degree,vicarages became small private research institutes, with libraries,music rooms, collections, art works etc. Also the arrangements of themain houses and their surroundings became important, and architects andartists from the royal court circles were engaged for the task. Aprestige competition of pleasant country life, invitations, hunting,demonstration of success in agriculture and planting, but also culturalperformances, was important for the creation of marriage relations andeconomic co-operation. In the middle of the province of Vastergotland in southern Sweden,there is a lake, Hornborgasjon, around which many estates are situated.One of these, Dagsnas, was the home of a nobleman, Pehr Tham (1737-1820)and his wife, from 1762 to his death (cf. Schiller 1930; Claeson 1993).Tham (as he signed his letters) was a remarkable personality engaged inmany activities and fields of knowledge. As the only son, he had a veryfree education at home with his private tutor, who came from a priestfamily with antiquarian interests. The freedom did not include religion,and all his life Tham took active part in the selection of parishpriests, church building and modernization of ecclesiastical traditions. At the age of 14 he went with his tutor to Uppsala university, andstayed there for two years listening to various professors in differentsubjects. In the arts he was particularly interested in architecture,and in history he learned about problems relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accthe translation andinterpretation of the Old Norse Old Norsen.1. The North Germanic languages until the middle of the 14th century.2. a. Old Icelandic.b. Old Norwegian.Noun 1. sagas. Universities at that time weredirectly open to all sons of the nobility and some chairs were paid bythe House of Nobility House of Nobility can refer to the following historical Nordic noble estate's assemblies: Swedish House of Nobility Finnish House of Nobility in Stockholm. Students were young and very fewstayed beyond the age of 22. For the nobility, university was mainly aplace where one learnt good manners Noun 1. good manners - a courteous mannercourtesypersonal manner, manner - a way of acting or behavingniceness, politeness - a courteous manner that respects accepted social usageurbanity - polished courtesy; elegance of manner , classical and foreign languages,how to conduct a conversation, how to fence, to play musical instrumentsand to draw. The goal was in no way to obtain a profession (except amilitary one), as most of the noblemen were supposed to go back home andsucceed their fathers as landlords. Tham planned his estate to the smallest detail, testing new English New Englishn.See Modern English. oats and fodder-plants. In an orangery he tried to adapt tea and coffeebushes to the hard Swedish climate. As the waters of Hornborgasjonflooded the near-by fields every spring, he begun to lower the waterlevel, thus gaining new arable land In geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to plough) is an agricultural term, meaning land that can be used for growing crops.Of the earth's 148,000,000km2 (57 million square miles) of land, approximately 31,000,000km2 (12 million square miles) are . He had a special interest inforeign trees, and planted abandoned fields with North American North Americannamed after North America.North American blastomycosissee North American blastomycosis.North American cattle ticksee boophilusannulatus. pinesand trees from Lebanon. Some were arranged in groves, some in avenues.Besides his main manors, Dagsnas, Stora Dahla and Sannum, he owned morethan 100 farms. For two of his villages he rearranged the houses tostandard patterns with straight roads and fire-proof distances betweenthe buildings. In all his practical activities he was a politicaleconomist and he always calculated the costs for the nation for anyproposed changes. The antiquarian interests and activities pursued by Tham are bothevident and extensive. They comprised surveys, excavations, rearrangingmonuments, translations of Old Norse sagas and runic texts, publishingand debates on archaeological issues. Most significantly, Tham actuallyemployed his own private antiquarian, C.G.G. Hilfeling (1740-1823).Hilfeling had worked as an antiquarian draughtsman to Jacob Langebek,the Danish State head archivist ARCHIVIST. One to whose care the archives have been confided. , and later to the Royal Danish family inthe 1770s (Gislestam 1994). With a background in the military services,where he improved his drawing abilities, Hilfeling first specialized indocumenting coins, medals and seals. Later he received a commission tosearch for, describe and depict old Danish Old Danishn.The Danish language from the beginning of the 12th to the end of the 14th century. monuments in former EastDenmark, now South Sweden, as the Danes were not convinced that theirold material memories would be respected by the new regime. So,Tham's antiquarian was a veteran, with more than 20 years withinthis occupation. Hilfeling's work for Tham can be divided in twomain parts, travelling/surveying and excavation. The journeys were firstlocal and then extended to the nearest regions such as the provinces ofBohuslan and Smaland. However his trial of strength was his survey ofthe island of Gotland, where he worked for four years around the turn ofthe century. There has been a certain Danish interest in the history ofGotland -- once a Danish province -- and Hilfeling's long visitsthere (Langebek, his old employer, had been there before him) was acontinuation of this interest. Tham's archaeological influencescame more from Copenhagen than Stockholm and he was aware of thesecontinuities which he himself created. The drawing style of Hilfeling is not influenced by romantic forms,it is very matter-of-fact and dispassionate dis��pas��sion��ate?adj.Devoid of or unaffected by passion, emotion, or bias. See Synonyms at fair1.dis��pas (FIGURES 1, 2, 4). Therewere considerable efforts behind the final results. Sketches taken inthe survey were reworked and made into fair copies, which were presentedto his principal. The rewritten and redrawn diaries were collected andbound together. A special problem for today's researcher has beento analyse and organise all the copies of these diaries, which now areto be consulted in at least eight different archives. The diaries werenever published, except for a short version from Bohuslan (Tham 1794)(FIGURE 3), and copies were made first at Dagsnas or more probably atStora Dahla during the winter season, by the hands of relatives. Thesecopies were then distributed and copied in their turn (Gislestam 1994:37-9). Visiting antiquarians AntiquariansClutterbuck, Cuthbertretired captain, devoted to study of antiquities. [Br. Lit.: The Monastery]Oldbuck, Jonathanlearned and garrulous antiquary. [Br. Lit. , such as Sjoborg, from Lund, could consultthe diaries at Dagsnas and copy images for their own publications. [FIGURES 1-4 OMITTED] Excavation activities concentrated on certain megalithic meg��a��lith?n.A very large stone used in various prehistoric architectures or monumental styles, notably in western Europe during the second millennium b.c. passage-graves in the surroundings of Stora Dahla. It is not known whowas actually doing the digging work, but both Hilfeling and Tham werepresent, making observations and measurements. Plan and side views weredrawn. The circumstances of the finds, mainly of the human bones, werecommented on. There was very little in the way of sheer treasure-huntingand hole-digging. The focus was clearly on the monument as architectureand on its contents. A letter to the librarian Carl Christopher Gjorwellof 30 June 1788 indicates both the fieldwork planned and the use of itsoutcome. Tham is using a very illustrative metaphor for theinvestigation: I have now a Danish antiquarius, Mr Hilfeling with me here. An oldOdin-grave we have dissected, without finding anything but decayedbones, unburnt. The very old Gothic sacrificial sac��ri��fi��cial?adj.Of, relating to, or concerned with a sacrifice: a sacrificial offering.sac place at Situn and thegrave of Odin we will revisit re��vis��it?tr.v. re��vis��it��ed, re��vis��it��ing, re��vis��itsTo visit again.n.A second or repeated visit.re and depict; as I together with duehistorical and local evidence can prove in the future, that thegentlemen Historici have altogether been wrong regarding the mostancient history. The grave is not seen as primarily a container. It is analysed as aconstruction and the anatomical approach is used to learn to know thechosen and investigated object. A complicated individual At the time, Tham was rather alone in his interest in archaeology.Before and after him more professional antiquarians were making surveysand excavations. However, only Professor Sjoborg and Johan GustafLiljegren, later the state head antiquarian, had undertaken the wholerange of the archaeological mission. Most of the historians were notreally interested in monuments and finds in the landscape and manyridiculed archaeology, like the Danes Ludvig Holberg This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject.Please help recruit one or [ improve this article] yourself. See the talk page for details. and AdamOehlenslager or the Swede swede:see turnip. Olof von Dahlin (Mjoberg 1967: 14). It ispossible to recognize in this attitude the difficulties of an academicworld to acknowledge the material results of handiwork. There were evenstatements, such as Erik Christian Werlauff's, whereby the onlyancient finds and monuments worth preserving would be the runic stones(Hildebrand 1937: 186). The antiquarian interests of Tham were part of his totalworld-view, which geographically presupposed his main estate building,Dagsnas, organized to house his sustained interest in culture. StoraDahla was more a mansion for overseeing agricultural work, and -- duringwintertime -- to be the comfortable, but artless residence of its owner.At Dagsnas Tham rebuilt an older house, including some remains of theruin of Skaraborg castle in Skara, which had been burnt down in 1612. Itwas a house organized to receive guests from far away, and also toinclude a growing, very important library, one of the most valuable inSweden at that time (Jacobowsky 1964). His friend of later days, thefamous sculptor J.T. Sergel, helped him with the acquisition of artobjects. These were organized into a museum in one of the central rooms,which were arranged in a line, over 60 m long (Erixon & Wallin1932). This museum was more of an art museum. It included sculptures ofOld Norse gods which bridged the classical world with the historicalNorth. More than 200 antiquities were also acquired, including classicalcameos. Furthermore, stone axes found on Tham's land had adisplay-case of their own. However, it was the actual prehistoric monuments, and not thesingle ancient items, which were the main concern. In one of his birchgroves in the park Tham set up five runic stones in an idealarrangement, and had his own comments engraved en��grave?tr.v. en��graved, en��grav��ing, en��graves1. To carve, cut, or etch into a material: engraved the champion's name on the trophy.2. into one of them, forminga sort of holy stage, where he could imagine himself to be reigning overhis estate as a god-like figure (FIGURES 5, 6). To complete the place healso arranged a special suicidal precipice. Tham was very geopoliticallycommitted, and saw his own position in direct line with the grandson ofMagog and the Old Swedish Old Swedishn.Swedish from the early 13th to the late 14th century. kings of Gylfe and Odin, who were supposed tohave been living around Hornborgasjon and later became buried in themost impressive monuments. In his view of history Tham was influenced bystories from the Islandic sagas and the ideologies presented earlier bythe Geatish historian Olof Rudbeck (1630-1702), whose main historicalwork was theso called Atlantica. These references, of course, had a central placein his library. [FIGURES 5-6 OMITTED] A member of many academies and learned societies, Tham was verypolemic po��lem��ic?n.1. A controversial argument, especially one refuting or attacking a specific opinion or doctrine.2. A person engaged in or inclined to controversy, argument, or refutation.adj. but also generous and fond of his friends. He did not travelmuch, and the longest journeys he undertook were to Stockholm. Instead,he had others to travel for him and he supported researchers in theirforeign study trips. One of the more remarkable of these persons, whofor a long time benefited from his financial but not completelyphilosophical support, was Torild. A Swedish poet, man of enlightenmentand social reformer, Torild went to England to convert the country intoa totally equal society governed by the best minds and talents. Thismission failed and he returned disillusioned dis��il��lu��sion?tr.v. dis��il��lu��sioned, dis��il��lu��sion��ing, dis��il��lu��sionsTo free or deprive of illusion.n.1. The act of disenchanting.2. The condition or fact of being disenchanted. home, where he later wasexpelled to Greifswald (Arvidson 1993). Tham, for his part, isconsidered in the literature as a complicated figure, lacking clearactivity lines and depth in knowledge, engaged in discussions of allkinds. He is made into an eccentric, who could with his personal fortunelive as it pleased him, supporting especially old and obsolete ideasregarding Sweden's prehistoric past. On the other hand, his talentas a landlord and his successful experiments have been looked upon withrespect. If we would analyse Pehr Tham in the light of Notelid'sabove-mentioned thesis, it is quite possible that this eccentricindividual would appear in another light. It seems as if posterity POSTERITY, descents. All the descendants of a person in a direct line. blames him for opinions he was not the only one to hold. But hiscomrades in opinion were more famous and supposed to be part of thedeveloping historical discipline. They were more needed. A deeperreanalysis of Tham would probably show that, like most persons, he wascomplex, having different views which were not calibrated cal��i��brate?tr.v. cal��i��brat��ed, cal��i��brat��ing, cal��i��brates1. To check, adjust, or determine by comparison with a standard (the graduations of a quantitative measuring instrument): . In Thamdwelled both enlightenment and early romanticism. He himself could livewith that, even if historians have a problem here. Individuals with oneclear idea are easier to handle for historical understanding, and so arepersons who constantly adopt new ideas and reject old ones. Far moredifficult are those persons who are attracted by many different ideaswhich do not sit well together philosophically. Tham was a person of thelatter sort. In his archaeological work, the documentation he used and producedis excellent. His reasoning, however, is strange to us, and he knew theoutcome of his local histories in advance, so that the line betweenobservation and conclusion is too straight and fast. It seems as if hedid not understand the art of historical craft. He created a workshop ofhis own and he had no vision of, nor saw the need for, a museum of thenation. He made comments on everything and everybody. He made runicinscriptions with moral contents on monuments, new and old. He reallysought to attain physical and direct contact with the past. Place, andof course his own estate, were important in his historicalunderstanding. History was not theory, it was topography, land andcloseness. And at a centre of it was created a very convincing andstrengthening locus of the past. (1) As histories of archaeology are becoming more numerous,national versions will probably appear as less particularistic par��tic��u��lar��ism?n.1. Exclusive adherence to, dedication to, or interest in one's own group, party, sect, or nation.2. and moreevidently dependent on wider European tendencies. A few contemporaryacademic works have taken this breadth of perspective (Schnapp 1996;Bahn 1996), but most of them remain national, institutional or personalin approach. These works are also valuable, however, and contribute tobuilding more complex reference systems (cf. Appelgren 1972; Randsborg1992; Christensson 1999). References The following archives have been consulted: Royal Library, TheManuscripts Section, Stockholm; Uppsala University Library Uppsala University Library in Sweden consists of 19 different branch libraries, with the largest being that housed in the old main library building, Carolina Rediviva. The library holds around 5. , Manuscript& Music; The Antiquarian-Topographical Archive (ATA), Stockholm;Goteborg University Library (Manuscripts Section); The privatecollection of Dagsnas; Eva & Otto Ekberg, Bjarka. ADOLFSSON, M. 2000. Fadeneslandets Kannedom. Om svenskaortsbeskrivningsprojekt och ambetsmans folklivsskildringar under 1700-och 1800-talet. Stockholm: Etnologiska institutionen, Stockholmsuniversitet. APPELGREN, S. 1972. Vastgotsk hembygdsforskning under aren1740-1820. Kommitten for utgivande av beskrivning over Vastergotland,Bidrag till landskapets kulturhistoria och naturbeskrivning. B:6. Skara. ARVIDSON, S. 1993. Harmens diktare. Thorild II. Stockholm:Carlssons. BAHN, P.G. (ed.). 1996. The Cambridge illustrated history ofarchaeology The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. OriginsThe exact origins of archaeology as a discipline are uncertain. . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). . BROBERG, G. 1999. Det linneanska universitetet, in Eriksson &Johannisson (ed.): 51-63. CHRISTENSSON, J. 1999. Vetenskapen i provinsen. Om baronernaGyllenstierna pa Krapperup och amatorernas tidevarv. Stockholm:Atlantis. CLAESON, H. 1993. Dagsnas -- ett gods och dess manniskor. Del 1:Tiden fram till 1820, in Boken om Harlunda-Bjarka. Del 1: 225-331.Nossebro: Harlunda-Bjarka Hembygdsforening. ERIKSSON, G. 1962. Elias Fries och den romantiska biologien.Uppsala & Stockholm: Lardomshistoriska Samfundet, Almqvist &Wiksell. Lychnos-Bibliotek no 20. 1979. Den svenska romantiken, in Bo Lindberg (ed.), 13 uppsatser isvensk ide- och lardomshistoria: 112-23. Uppsala: Bokforlaget Carmina. 1999. Det romantiska universitet, in Eriksson & Johannisson(ed.): 64-71. ERIKSSON, G. & K. JOHANNISSON (ed.). 1999. Den akademiskagemenskapen. Universitetens ide- och identitet. Ett symposium till ToreFrangsmyrs 60-arsdag. Uppsala: Institutionen for ide- ochlardomshistoria, Uppsala universitet. Skrifter 21. ERIXON, S. & S. WALLIN. 1932. Vastgotagardar. Herremannens ochbondernas aldre byggnadskultur i Skaraborgs lan, undersokt genomNordiska Museet. Vagledande oversikt redigerad av Sigurd Erixon ochSigurd Wallin pa uppdrag av Skaraborgs lans hushallningssallskap tillUtstallningen i Skara vid Sallskapets 125-arsjubileum den 22 juni 1932.Stockholm: Nordisk Rotogravyr. FEHRMAN, C. 1956. Ruinernas romantik. Stockholm: Bonniers. FRANGSMYR, T. 1981. The Enlightenment in Sweden, in R. Porter &M. Teich (ed.), The Enlightenment in national context: 164-75. London:Cambridge University Press.. GEIJER, E.G. 1923. Samlade skrifter. Forsta delen. Essayer ochavhandlingar 1803-1817. Genomsedd ay J Landquist. Stockholm: P.A.Nordstedt & Soner. GISLESTAM, T. 1994. C.G.G. Hilfelings gotlandska resor. I. Visby:Gotlands Fornsal. HILDEBRAND, B. 1937. C.J. Thomsen och hans larda forbindelser iSverige 1816-1837. Bidrag till den nordiska forn- och havdaforskningenshistoria. I: Tiden till 1826. Stockholm: Wahlstrom & Widstrand.Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademiens Handlingar Del44:1. JACOBOWSKY, C.W. 1964. Pehr Tham som (1) (System Object Model) An object architecture from IBM that provides a full implementation of the CORBA standard. SOM is language independent and is supported by a variety of large compiler and application development vendors. boksamlare, Vastgotalitteratur(1964): 25-33. Tidskrift utgiven av Foreningen for vastgotalitteratur Nr[OMEGA]. MJOBERG, J. 1967. Drommen om Sagatiden. Forsta delen. Aterblick paden nordiska romantiken Fran 1700-talets mitt till nygoticismen (omkr.1865). Stockholm: Natur och Kultur. NOTELID, M. 2000. Det andra paseendet. En studie av overgangar iden arkeologiska disciplinens historia. Uppsala: Institutionen forarkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet. OPIA OPIA Ontario Printing and Imaging AssociationOPIA Optical Precision Instrument Associates 22. 2001. Det andra paseendet. Del II. Den omvanda diskursen. Uppsala:Institutionen for arkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet.OPIA 23. RANDSBORG, K. 1992. Antiquity and archaeology in `bourgeois'Scandinavia 1750-1800, Acta Archaeologica 63: 209-33. RUNEBY, N. 1988. `Ett otidigt och okant frammande'. Om denlarde, studenten, universitetet och var bildningstradition, Lychnos.Lardomshistoriska Samfundets Arsbok: 91-119. SCHILLER, H. 1930. En originell herre. Pehr Tham till Dagsnas. Densiste rudbeckianen. Stockholm: Albert Bonniers forlag. SCHNAPP, A. 1996. The discovery of the past. The origins ofarchaeology. London: British Museum British Museum,the national repository in London for treasures in science and art. Located in the Bloomsbury section of the city, it has departments of antiquities, prints and drawings, coins and medals, and ethnography. Press. SCHUCK, H. 1932-1944. Kgl. Vitterhets Historie och AntikvitetsAkademien. Dess Forhistoria och Historia. Band I-VIII. Stockholm: Kungl.Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. STENROTH, I. 1972. Gothiska Forbundet, doctoral thesis, GoteborgUniversity. STAHLE, C.I. 1960. Rannsakningar efter antikviteter. Band I. PaAkademiens uppdrag utgivna och redigerade. Stockholm: Kungh VitterhetsHistorie och Antikvitets Akademien. 1969. Rannsakningar efter antikviteter. Band II. Pa Akademiensuppdrag utgivna. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och AntikvitetsAkademien. STAHLE, C.I. & N.-G. STAHRE. 1992. Band III Band III is the name of a radio frequency range within the very high frequency part of the electromagnetic spectrum.Band III ranges from 174 to 230 MHz, and it is primarily used for radio and television broadcasting. . Pa Akademiensuppdrag utgivna. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och AntikvitetsAkademien.. THAM, P. 1794. Gothiska Monumenter; samlade och beskrifne.Stockholm: Langeska tryckeriet. UGGLA, A. 1932. Kilian Stobaei instruktion for en forskningsfard iSkane 1729, Svenska Linne-Sallskapets, Arsskrift, Argang XV: 132-9. JARL NORDBLADH, Department of Archaeology, Goteborg University, Box200, SE 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.

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