How Green Is Judaism? Exploring Jewish Environmental Ethics.

How Green Is Judaism? Exploring Jewish Environmental Ethics. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics, ecology and geography. REPRESENTS AN IMPORTANT JEWISH issue: it linksthe Jewish tradition of ethical analysis to a significant contemporaryproblem. [1] Jewish tradition makes a distinctive and importantcontribution to our understanding of contemporary environmental ethicsand the complex relationship of human beings and nature. While theBible, which extends over seven or eight centuries, as well aspost-biblical exegesis exegesisScholarly interpretation of religious texts, using linguistic, historical, and other methods. In Judaism and Christianity, it has been used extensively in the study of the Bible. Textual criticism tries to establish the accuracy of biblical texts. , contains not one normative view of nature but avariety of views, many ancient and medieval Jewish texts both expressand are consistent with a strong environmental ethic. Far from providinga blanket endorsement to man's domination of nature for his ownbenefit, Judaism imposes numerous restrictions on how, when, and to whatextent people can use the natural environment. Rather than simplyexpressing anthropocentric anthropocentric/an��thro��po��cen��tric/ (an?thro-po-sen��trik) with a human bias; considering humans the center of the universe. an��thro��po��cen��tricadj.1. values, many of its ideas and principleseither explicitly or implicitly evoke themes that are consistent witheco- or biocentric understandings of the relationship between pe opleand nature. [2] Indeed, the latter ethos, rather than representing amajor new departure in or challenge to western religious thought, isactually prefigured in both ancient and medieval Jewish religious texts. But while Judaism may be consistent with many contemporaryenvironmental values and doctrines, its teachings are not identical tothem. Specifically, Judaism does not regard the preservation orprotection of nature as the most important societal value; it holds thathumans are not just a part of nature but have privileged and distinctivemoral claims; it believes that nature can threaten humans as well as theobverse; it argues that nature should be used and enjoyed as well asprotected. Jewish tradition is complex: it contains both"green" and "non-green" elements. It is bothinappropriate to over-emphasize the former, as have some Jewishenvironmentalists, or the latter, as have some environmental critics ofwestern religion. [3] In the Jewish tradition, humans have both moral claims on natureand nature has moral claims on humans. But neither claim is absolute:nature both exists for the sake of humans and for its own sake. Whilethe natural world must be respected and admired, its challenge to humaninterests and values must also be recognized. The key contribution ofancient and medieval Jewish texts to contemporary environmentaldiscourse lies in the concept of balance--balance between the values andneeds of humans and the claims of nature--and between viewing nature asa source of life and moral values and as a threat to human life andsocial values. The teachings of Judaism challenge both those who wouldplace too low a value on nature as well as those who would place toohigh a value on it. Anthropocentrism an��thro��po��cen��tric?adj.1. Regarding humans as the central element of the universe.2. Interpreting reality exclusively in terms of human values and experience. and Eco-centrism "When you besiege be��siege?tr.v. be��sieged, be��sieg��ing, be��sieg��es1. To surround with hostile forces.2. To crowd around; hem in.3. a town for many days, waging-war against it,to seize it: you are not to bring-ruin upon its trees, by swinging-away(with) an ax against them, for from them you eat, them you are not tocut-down--for are the trees of the field human beings, (able) to comeagainst you in a siege? Only those trees of which you know that they arenot trees for eating, them you may bring-to-ruin and cut-down, that youmay build siege-works against the town that is making war against you,until its downfall" (Deuteronomy 20: 19-20). [4] This is perhaps the most frequently cited passage in contemporarywritings on Jewish environmental ethics and is often evoked as a textualbasis for Jewish environmental ethics. Yet it contains an importantambiguity. Put simply: why should one not destroy the fruit trees? One interpretation of this passage, expressed by the medievalJewish commentator Ibn Ezra Ibn Ezra was a prominent Jewish family from Spain spanning many centuries.The name ibn Ezra may refer to: Abraham ibn Ezra (1092 - 1167), a Rabbi who lived in the eleventh and twelfth centuries (1089-1164), is that we should not destroythe fruit trees because our lives are dependent on them and the foodthey produce. Thus destroying the fruit-trees is forbidden because it isnot in the long-term interest of humans. However, the medieval Jewishscholar Rashi (1040--1105), offers a rather different interpretation. Heasks rhetorically: "Are trees like people that they can run awayfrom an advancing army and take refuge in the town? Of course not--theyare innocent bystanders. Therefore don't involve them in yourconflicts, and don't cut them down." [5] In short, the treeshave a life of their own: they don't just exist to serve humanneeds. Ibn Izra's interpretation is anthropocentric. It evokes theconcept of sustainable development Sustainable development is a socio-ecological process characterized by the fulfilment of human needs while maintaining the quality of the natural environment indefinitely. The linkage between environment and development was globally recognized in 1980, when the International Union : we are permitted to pick the fruit,but not destroy the fruit tree because the fruit is a renewable resource Noun 1. renewable resource - any natural resource (as wood or solar energy) that can be replenished naturally with the passage of timenatural resource, natural resources - resources (actual and potential) supplied by nature while the tree presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. is not. Rashi's interpretation iseco-centric or biocentric: it makes no reference to human needs. Itposits that trees have an intrinsic value Intrinsic Value1. The value of a company or an asset based on an underlying perception of the value.2. For call options, this is the difference between the underlying stock's price and the strike price. which is independent of humanwelfare or concerns. Not only can one locate both perspectives within Jewish traditionbut the very ambiguity of Deuteronomy 20:19-20 contains an important keyto understanding the Jewish approach to environmental ethics. Thediverse interpretations of this passage suggest that Jewishenvironmental ethics incorporates both anthropocentrism andbio-centrism. To argue that nature exists only for the benefit of man isto refuse to acknowledge all nature as God's creation. But it wouldbe equally misguided to claim that humans ought not use nature for theirown benefit. Thus even if one were to agree with the eco-centric interpretationof the prohibition against destroying fruit-trees, i.e., that they areto be valued for their own sake, the fact remains that it is permissibleto cut down the non-fruit-bearing trees for the purposes of waging war.But these trees are no less a part of nature than fruit-bearing trees.Neither are able to run away. Why are we then permitted to destroy them?Are they not equally innocent? Why are they not also valued for theirown sake? Clearly God does not want us to live in a world in which we areforbidden to chop down Verb 1. chop down - cut down; "George chopped down the cherry tree"fell, strike down, cut down, drop - cause to fall by or as if by delivering a blow; "strike down a tree"; "Lightning struck down the hikers" all trees, since such a prohibition would makethe preservation and sustaining of human life impossible. At the sametime, neither does God want us to assume that the entire natural worldexists to satisfy our material needs, for as Psalm 24 reminds us:"The earth is the Lord's and all that is in it." TheTorah's distinction between fruit-bearing and non-fruit-bearingtrees seems to suggest both ideas: nature exists both for the benefit ofhumans and has a value which is independent of human needs. Both interpretations also inform the exegesis of Deuteronomy22:6-7, another Biblical text frequently cited in contemporarydiscussions of Jewish views on ecology: "When you encounter thenest of a bird before you in the way, in any tree or on the ground,(whether) fledglings or eggs, with the mother crouching upon thefledging or upon the eggs, you are not to take away the mother alongwith the children. Send-free, send-free the mother, but the children youmay take for yourself, in order it may go-well with you and you mayprolong (your) life." Once again: why should one take the young butlet the mother go? According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Don Isaac Abravanel (1437-1508), "God hascommanded us not to destroy that which generates progeny," addingthat "this commandment com��mand��ment?n.1. A command; an edict.2. Bible One of the Ten Commandments.commandmentNouna divine command, esp. is given not for the sake of the animalworld but rather so that it shall be good for humankind when Creation isperpetuated so that one will be able to partake of it again in thefuture." [6] To translate this interpretation into a modem idiom,Abravanel has invoked the concept of sustainable development. Yet Nahmanides (1194-1270), another medieval commentator, viewsthis commandment in terms of an eco-centric understanding of the valueof species preservation. According to his interpretation of thispassage, "Scripture will not permit a destructive act that willbring about the extinction of a species, even though it has permittedthe ritual slaughtering of that species for food. He who kills themother and offspring on one day is considered as if he destroyed thespecies." [7] Thus according to Nahmanides, species extinction isintrinsically wrong-regardless of how or whether it affects humans. The Relationship of Humans to Nature A similar ambiguity informs various interpretations of the creationstory. Specifically: what is the significance of the fact that humanbeings were created on the sixth day--after the creation of the entirenatural world? According to the talmudic tractate trac��tate?n.A treatise; an essay.[Latin tracttus; see tract2.] Sanhedrin, "Ourmasters taught: Man was created on the eve On the Eve (Накануне in Russian) is the third novel by famous Russian writer Ivan Turgenev, best known for his short stories and the novel Fathers and Sons. of the Sabbath--and for whatreason? So that in case his heart grew proud, one might say to him: Eventhe gnat was in creation before you were there." [8] Yet a Midrashcompiled in the early Middle Ages offers an anthropocentric perspective.It has God showing the Garden of Eden Garden of Edenn.See Eden.Noun 1. Garden of Eden - a beautiful garden where Adam and Eve were placed at the Creation; when they disobeyed and ate the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil they were to Adam and saying to him:"All I have created, I created for you." Why did God createman at the end of the work of creation? "So that he may directlycome to the banquet. One can compare it to a king who constructedpalaces and embellished them and prepared a banquet and only then did heinvite his guests." [9] Indeed, both relationships of humans to nature are expressed at thevery beginning of the Pentateuch: "Let them (humankind) havedominion over the fish of the sea, the fowl of the heavens, animals, allthe earth, and all crawling things that crawl upon the earth"(Genesis 1:26). This passage has been frequently cited as the basis forthe claim that the Bible legitimates, even commands, the exploitation ofnature by humans. However a classic rabbinic rab��bin��i��cal? also rab��bin��icadj.Of, relating to, or characteristic of rabbis.[From obsolete rabbin, rabbi, from French, from Old French rabain, probably from Aramaic midrash on this passagesuggests a more nuanced interpretation: "When God created Adam heled him past all the trees in the Garden of Eden and told him, 'Seehow beautiful and excellent are all My works. Beware lest you spoil andruin My world. For if you spoil it there is nobody to repair it afteryou.'" [10] Moreover, it is followed in verse 30 by a clearrestriction on man's domination of nature: people are onlypermitted to eat plants. And in the second creation story in Genesis2:15, God places man in the Garden of Eden and instructs him "towork it and watch it"--which explicitly invokes the principle ofstewardship. The same complex relationship of people to nature also informs theenvironmental ethic implicit in Adj. 1. implicit in - in the nature of something though not readily apparent; "shortcomings inherent in our approach"; "an underlying meaning"underlying, inherent the laws of the kashrut kash��rutalso kash��ruth ?n.1. The state of being kosher.2. The body of Jewish dietary law.[Mishnaic Hebrew ka , whichdistinguish between foods that are permissible and prohibited to eat andsacrifice. Just as Deuteronomy 20:19--20 distinguishes which trees onecan and cannot cut down while waging war, soJewish dietary lawsdistinguish between which animals Jews can and cannot consume. Therestrictions on fish and animal consumption specified in the laws ofkashrut are not anthropocentric, in the sense that only a few of theforbidden animals pose a threat to human health, and obviously therewould be no health hazard health hazardOccupational safety Any agent or activity posing a potential hazard to health. Cf Physical hazard. in sacrificing them. It is noteworthy that asignificant number of the animals currently protected by either Americanor international environmental law, and whose endangerment has become afocus of considerable public concern, are also forbidden to be eaten orsacrificed byJews. These include lions, tigers, and the other animals ofthe cat family, elephants, bears, rhinoceros rhinoceros,massive hoofed mammal of Africa, India, and SE Asia, characterized by a snout with one or two horns. The rhinoceros family, along with the horse and tapir families, forms the order of odd-toed hoofed mammals. , dolp hins (mammals),whales, eagles, alligators, and turtles. This is obviously coincidental since the origin of the kashrut lawshas nothing to do with animal protection; rather they stem from thedivine compromise with Noah, which permitted humans to eat meat, butonly under certain conditions. But what is not coincidental is that boththe ancient Jews believed and contemporary environmentalists agree thatmany of God's creatures do not exist for the sake of humans. Thefact that much of the animal world was not created for man's use isfurther made clear in Job, when God points with pride to the variousmagnificent creatures He has created, virtually all of whom are uselessto people. This list includes the lion, the Lion, The,English name for Leo, a constellation. mountain goat mountain goat:see Rocky Mountain goat. mountain goator Rocky Mountain goatRuminant (bovid species Oreamnos americanus) of the Yukon to the northern Rockies that is more closely related to antelopes than to goats. , the wild ass wild asssignifies jealousy. [Animal Symbolism: Jobes, 142]See : Jealousy ,the buffalo, the ostrich ostrich,common name for a large flightless bird (Struthio camelus) of Africa and parts of SW Asia, allied to the rhea, the emu and the extinct moa. It is the largest of living birds; some males reach a height of 8 ft (244 cm) and weigh from 200 to 300 lb , the wild horse, the eagle, the hippopotamus hippopotamus,herbivorous, river-living mammal of tropical Africa. The large hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius, has a short-legged, broad body with a tough gray or brown hide. ,and the crocodile. Critical to the observance of the Sabbath is the prohibitionagainst productive activity. On the Sabbath, Jews are enjoined fromtinkering with or transforming the world, which of course also includestinkering with or transforming nature. Indeed the commandment to observethe Sabbath is the only commandment which applies to nature as well aspeople, or, more precisely, to the relationship of people to animals andthe land. According to Exodus 20:10, "you are not to make any kindsof work, (not) you, nor your son, nor your daughter, (not) your servant,nor your maid, nor your beast, nor your sojourner that is within yourgates" (italics added)--a stipulation which is repeated in Exodus23:12 and Deuteronomy 5:12. According to one contemporary scholar, "The essence of theprohibition against melakha (productive work) on Shabbat is to teachthat the productive manipulation of the environment is not an absoluteright." [11] Thus on the Sabbath, one cannot slaughter animals(though one can eat them if they are prepared earlier), work them in thefield, hunt them, harvest crops, chop down trees, pick fruit etc. Inshort, on the Sabbath, nature also has a day of rest from humanmanipulation. This is also true of the observance of most holidays. AsIsmar Schorsch Ismar Schorsch (1935- ) was the sixth Chancellor of The Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) and is the Rabbi Herman Abramovitz Professor of Jewish history. He served as Chancellor for 19 years and retired on June 30, 2006. He was succeeded by Arnold Eisen. notes, "an unmistakable strain of self-denial runsthrough the Jewish calendar Jewish calendarn.The lunisolar calendar used to mark the events of the Jewish year, dating the creation of the world at 3761 b.c.See Table at calendar.Noun 1. . From the sacrificial cult of the temple tothe synagogue of rabbinic Judaism rabbinic JudaismPrincipal form of Judaism that developed after the fall of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (AD 70). It originated in the teachings of the Pharisees, who emphasized the need for critical interpretation of the Torah. , it is the absolute cessation of workthat distinguishes the celebration of Jewish holy days Noun 1. Jewish holy day - a religious holiday for JewsFeast of Booths, Feast of Tabernacles, Succos, Succoth, Sukkoth, Tabernacles - a major Jewish festival beginning on the eve of the 15th of Tishri and commemorating the shelter of the Israelites during their 40 ... spiritualrenewal is effected through physical contraction. ... To spendone-seventh of one's life in 'unproductive rest' isscarcely a mark of absolute power." [12] But it is equally important to note that the Sabbath only takesplace one day of the week. The other 86 percent of the time (notcounting various holidays) humans can not only tinker with and transformnature, but they are required to do so. Indeed, as A.J. Eleschelobserves, "the duty to work for six days is just as much a part ofGod's covenant with man as the duty to abstain from abstain fromverb refrain from, avoid, decline, give up, stop, refuse, cease, do without, shun, renounce, eschew, leave off, keep from, forgo, withhold from, forbear, desist from, deny yourself, kick ( work on theseventh day." [13] During the former, nature can and should be usedproductively. Moreover the Sabbath and the six working days areinterdependent: neither can exist without the other. The same sense of temporal balance underlies the Sabbatical year sabbatical yearn.1. A leave of absence, often with pay, usually granted every seventh year, as to a college professor, for travel, research, or rest.2. ,which is akin in some respects to a year-long celebration of theSabbath. During this year, which occurs every seven years, sowing,harvesting and the gathering of grapes and other crops is forbidden(Leviticus 25). Thus every seven years the land has a year of rest. Thislaw may have an ecological dimension. "In the days before croprotation or the availability of chemical nutrients for the soil, thepractice of letting the land lie fallow fallowa pale cream, light fawn, or pale yellow coat color in dogs. enabled it to regain itsfertility." [14] But the Rabbinic commentary on the Sabbatical yeardoes not refer to this instrumental explanation. Rather, the exegesis onthis commandment emphasizes that its central purpose is thereaffirmation of God's ownership of the land. [15] Thus whileGenesis 1, Deuteronomy 20:19--20, Deuteronomy 22:6--7, and the rules ofthe kashrut limit which parts of nature one can consume, the commandmentto observe the Sabbath and observe the Sabbatical year places limits onwhen th is consumption can take place. A similar principle underlies the various rules regulating thetreatment of animals that appear sporadically in the Pentateuch and areechoed in the rabbinic tradition. On one hand, compassion for all ofGod's living creatures is required: animals have feelings which manis obligated ob��li��gate?tr.v. ob��li��gat��ed, ob��li��gat��ing, ob��li��gates1. To bind, compel, or constrain by a social, legal, or moral tie. See Synonyms at force.2. To cause to be grateful or indebted; oblige. to respect. The principle in rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature, in the broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of Judaism's rabbinic writing/s throughout history. However, the term often used is an exact translation of the Hebrew term Sifrut Hazal relatingto relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accthe treatment of animals is za'ar ba'alei hayim, "thepain of living creatures." [16] In addition to the fourth commandment's explicit requirementthat all creatures, human as well as animal, have a day of rest,Deuteronomy forbids the farmer to plow with an ox and a donkey yoked yoked(yokd) joined together, and so acting in concert. together because, according to one interpretation, this would imposegreater hardship on the weaker animal (Deuteronomy 22:10). Likewise afarmer is not permitted to muzzle muzzle1. the part of the face supported by the maxillae and nasal bones; the part of a dog's head anterior to the stop and cheeks, containing the nasal passages and bearing the nosepad. Longer in dolichocephalics and practically nonexistent in brachycephalics. an ox during the threshing threshingor thrashing,separation of grain from the stalk on which it grows and from the chaff or pod that covers it. The first known method was by striking the reaped ears of grain with a flail. period toprevent his eating grain (Deuteronomy 25:4). Nor can an ox or a sheep beslaughtered on the same day as its offspring (Leviticus 22: 28; see alsoDeuteronomy 22:6--7 discussed above). The Torah also explicitlyinstructs Jews not to extend their animosity to the animals of theirenemy: "(And) when you see the donkey of one who hates youcrouching under its burden, restrain from abandoning to him--unbind, yetunbind it together with him" (Exodus 23: 5). Not only do the laws of kosher slaughtering (shehitak) seek tominimize the pain of the animal being killed, but the biblical basis forthe talmudic separation of the consumption of meat and milk is based ona passage which speaks to compassion for animals, namely that a kidcannot be boiled in the milk of its mother. This passage is consideredso important that it is repeated on three separate occasions. But on the other hand, it is permitted to kill animals for food andother purposes, subject to the restrictions noted above. Rabbinic lawalso permits hunting for food, commerce, or the removal of animal pests.And of course it also permits the use of animals for farm labor andtransportation. And even unclean animals (Script.) those which the Israelites were forbidden to use for food.See also: Unclean can be killed for their skinsor if they present a danger to humans. That human life can take precedence over animal life is explicitlyillustrated in one of the most dramatic and important biblical stories,namely the binding of Isaac The Binding of Isaac, in Genesis 22, is narration from the Hebrew Bible in which God asks Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac on Mount Moriah. The event is remembered on the 1st of Tishrei in the Jewish calendar and from the 10th - 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Muslim calendar. . God instructs Abraham to substitute a wildram for his son Isaac on the makeshift altar Abraham has been commandedto build. This passage makes explicit the Jewish prohibition againsthuman sacrifice human sacrificeOffering of the life of a human being to a god. In some ancient cultures, the killing of a human being, or the substitution of an animal for a person, was an attempt to commune with the god and to participate in the divine life. , but its environmental context is equally significant:the life of an animal is sacrificed so that a human being--one whosesurvival is central to the future of the Jewish people--may live. This principle is repeated in the story of the Exodus when theIsraelites are instructed to slaughter lambs and place their blood ontheir door-posts so that the angel of death may pass over their homesand not kill their first-born as well as those of the Egyptians.Moreover, animal sacrifices are commanded throughout the Pentateuch andare a major component of temple worship. Yet, once again, limits apply:only domesticated animals This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since September 2007.This is a list of animals which have been domesticated by humans. can be sacrificed, thus assuring speciespreservation. In this context, it is useful to note the historical context ofDeuteronomy 20:19--20. Ancient practices of warfare knew no limits;nothing was allowed to interfere with the achievement of militaryobjectives, specifically in this case the conquest of a city. Presumablythe besieging force stood to benefit in some way from the destruction ofthe fruit trees in the vicinity of the city being attacked, otherwisethere would be no reason for invoking the concept of bal tashkhit (donot destroy) in this context in the first place. The halakhah (Jewishlaw) subsequently extended the principle of bal tashkhitto prohibit thediverting of the flow of a river to cause distress to a besieged be��siege?tr.v. be��sieged, be��sieg��ing, be��sieg��es1. To surround with hostile forces.2. To crowd around; hem in.3. city.Thus even in the extreme case of warfare, Jewish law imposes limits onman's use of nature. Perceptions of Nature A major difference between anthropocentric and eco-centricenvironmental ethics lies in their respective views of nature. Theformer ethic assumes the existence of a tension between the interests ofhumans and nature, while both radical ecology and eco-feminism tend toregard nature as benign or at least innocent. [17] Once again, theJewish tradition incorporates both perspectives. It also views nature inboth positive and negative terms. One finds a post-Biblical harbinger of the deep ecology deep ecologyn.A form of environmentalism that advocates radical measures to protect the natural environment regardless of their effect on the welfare of people.deep ecologist n. orbiocentric perspective that man does not enjoy a privileged place in theuniverse in the voice which (rhetorically) questionsJob from thewhirlwind: "Where were you when I laid the earth's foundation?Who set its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all thedivine beings shouted for joy?" (Job 38:4, 6--7). More than fivecenturies before the advent of radical ecology, the Jewish medievalphilosopher Maimonides (1131--1205) wrote in Guide for the Perplexed,"It should not be believed that all the beings exist for the sakeof the existence of humanity. On the contrary, all the other beings toohave been intended for their own sakes, and not for the sake ofsomething else." [18] The Jewish tradition is also both respectful and appreciative ofnature. Thus "Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai ... used to say: if you havea sapling in your hand, and someone should say to you that the Messiahhas come, stay and complete the planting, and then go to greet theMessiah." [19] The philosopher Bakhya ibn Pekuda wrote that Jewsshould engage in "meditation upon creation" in order to"sense God's majesty" while a large number of Kabbalistic kab��ba��lis��ticor ca��ba��lis��tic or qa��ba��lis��tic ?adj.Of or relating to the Kabbalah.kab works considered "nature itself as a garment of theShekkhina." [20] "Perek Shira," a mystical poem from 900,has verses from all kinds of creatures singing God's praises whileone tradition of Jewish mysticism included outdoor meditation. [21] At the same time, Jewish tradition is by no means uncritical ofnature. This criticism has a number of dimensions. First, for all itspaeans and testimonies to nature's beauty and majesty, the Torahalso depicts nature as a malevolent force, one capable of wreakinghavoc, death, and destruction. Indeed nature's destructivenessplays a central role in a number of important biblical narratives. Thefirst of these is the flood. God's injunction to Noah to take twoof every species into the ark has been frequently cited as demonstratinga Biblical commitment to species protection. This is certainly aplausible interpretation: having created each of these species earlierin Genesis, God presumably did not want his efforts to be in vain. But what is equally critical is that the flood also destroyedcountless millions of animals and plants. (The latter, incidentally,were not brought into the ark.) The most apocryphal a��poc��ry��phal?adj.1. Of questionable authorship or authenticity.2. Erroneous; fictitious: "Wildly apocryphal rumors about starvation in Petrograd . . . contemporary visionsof ecological catastrophe do not even begin to approach the magnitude ofthe destruction of nature described in Genesis 7:21--23: "Thenexpired all flesh that crawls about upon the earth--fowl, herd-animals,wildlife, and all swarming things that swarm upon the earth, and allhumans: all that had the breath of the rush of life in their nostrils,all that were on firm-ground, died, He blotted out all existing thingsthat were on the face of the soil, from man to beast, to crawling thingsand to fowl of the heavens, they were blotted out from the earth."Indeed, so great was the terror caused by this extraordinarydestructiveness that God created the rainbow in order to assure peoplethat such a natural catastrophe would not recur. Another example of nature's destructiveness occurs in thestory of Joseph. For seven years, the Years, Thethe seven decades of Eleanor Pargiter’s life. [Br. Lit.: Benét, 1109]See : Time entire region is made barren,causing untold misery not only for the Egyptians but also for theHebrews who are forced to leave their ancestral land in search of food.A third example of nature's destructiveness, which also forms acritical part of the Exodus narrative, are the plagues which are visitedupon the Egyptians. Half of the plagues, namely frogs, vermin vermin/ver��min/ (ver��min)1. an external animal parasite.2. such parasites collectively.ver��minousver��minn. pl. , wildbeasts, hail, and locusts, directly use natural forces to make the livesof the Egyptians miserable, though for the most serious plague, thekilling of the first born, God intervenes more directly through theangel of death. The Egyptian army The Egyptian Army is the largest service within the Egyptian military establishment. It is estimated to number around 340,000, plus around 375,000 reservists for a total of 655-715,000[1]. seeking to recapture the fleeingIsraelites also succumbs to nature's destructiveness: it isdrowned. Other Biblical narratives also show nature as a life-threateningforce. The Biblical woods are wild places, filled with dangerousanimals, while thirst and starvation routinely confront wanderers in thedesert. Indeed God explicitly acknowledges the former danger when hetells Moses, "I will not drive them (the Canaanites) out before youin one year, lest the land become desolate and the wildlife of the fieldbecome-many against you (italics added; Exodus 23:29). In the Yom Kippur Yom Kippur[Heb.,=day of atonement], in Judaism, the most sacred holy day, falling on the 10th day of the Jewish month of Tishri (usually late September or early October). It is a day of fasting and prayer for forgiveness for sins committed during the year. liturgy, God decides which Jews will be eaten by wild animals WILD ANIMALS. Animals in a state of nature; animals ferae naturae. Vide Animals; Ferae naturae. during thecoming year. And in one of the most dramatic passages in the Tanakh, Godtells Moses in Deuteronomy that if the Jewish people do not follow hiscommandments, natural catastrophes will follow (Deuteronomy 27:15-68). Obviously in the context of Jewish tradition, these naturaldisasters are not "natural." They are created by God in orderto achieve various divine purposes. But it is surely significant thatGod chooses to reveal himself through nature's malevolence as wellas through its beneficence beneficence (b·neˑ·fi·s . Both sides of nature appear throughout theTorah. Second, nature is not only a source of physical danger to humanbeings; it is also a source of moral danger. Recall that it is ananimal, the serpent, that leads to the first sin. A more significant andsubtle example is illustrated by the setting of the revelation at Sinai,the defining event in the history of the Jewish people. Why does Godchoose to make his covenant with the Jewish people only in a placeutterly devoid of the capacity for sustaining life? Sinai is among themost desolate and barren places on the face of the earth. Why did Godnot choose a more hospitable setting, one that would enable Him todisplay the myriad wonders of the physical world that He sopainstakingly created at the beginning of Genesis? In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , whynot choose a setting of natural abundance In chemistry, natural abundance (NA) refers to the prevalence of isotopes of a chemical element as naturally found on a planet. The relative atomic mass (a weighted average) of these isotopes is the atomic weight listed for the element in the periodic table. to make his covenant with theJewish people? Perhaps God did not do so because seeing natural abundance aroundthem would have distracted the people gathered at the foot of Mt. Sinai.It would have undermined God's central message, namely that what iscritical to the survival of the Jewish people is their relationship toGod, not the abundance of the natural world. Indeed, it is the physicalsetting of the revelation at Sinai that marks Judaism's decisivebreak with the pantheistic pan��the��ism?n.1. A doctrine identifying the Deity with the universe and its phenomena.2. Belief in and worship of all gods.pan traditions of nature worship of other ancientreligions. Because there is no natural abundance to worship or to admireat Sinai, there is no possibility of intermingling God with nature or ofviewing nature as sacred. There is only God and the Jewish people;everything else, including nature, is secondary. The plausibility of this interpretation is suggested by themurmurings of the Israelites as they wander in the desert for 40 years.What do they complain about? What makes them long for life as slaves inEgypt? What, in short, threatens to distract them from their obligationsunder the covenant? It is their memory of the abundance of nature'sbounty in Egypt--a land which at one point Korach ironically recalls asone of milk and honey. The contrast is clear. In Egypt, a land in whichnature's abundance is manifold-and not incidentally where nature isalso worshipped--Jews are slaves, while in the desert, where natureproduces nothing of value to humans, Jews are free. Not until theIsraelites reach and conquer the Promised Land will they be able toenjoy both at the same time. The notion of nature as a source of distraction is also echoed inthis passage from the Mishna composed in the third century G.E.:"Whoever is walking along the road reciting [holy texts], and hestops his recitation rec��i��ta��tion?n.1. a. The act of reciting memorized materials in a public performance.b. The material so presented.2. a. Oral delivery of prepared lessons by a pupil.b. and says, 'How beautiful is this tree! Howbeautiful is this field!' it is reckoned as if he had committed amortal sin mortal sinn. ChristianityA sin, such as murder or blasphemy, that is so heinous it deprives the soul of sanctifying grace and causes damnation if unpardoned at the time of death. ." [22] Thus while Jewish tradition encourages theappreciation of nature, it also recognizes that there must be limits tothis appreciation: nature is not to be worshipped. Indeed, for manycommentators, the substitution of God for nature, or the natural worldas an object of worship, is precisely what distinguishes Judaism fromthe pagan or pantheistic religions of the ancient world out of which itemerged. Practical Applications The Rabbis wrestled with the practical implications of Jewishenvironmental ethics in part through their exegesis on the principle ofbal tashkhit, a variant of the Biblical phrase in 20:19 translated as"you shall not destroy," or "don't destroywantonly," which many Rabbis consider one of the 613 commandmentswhich Jews are commanded to observe. But what precisely does it mean to"destroy" or "waste"? While originally interpreted to place limits on the waging of war,bal tashkhit came to have more far reaching implications. The Talmudapplies it to both products of nature and products of man: "Whoeverbreaks vessels, or tears garments, or destroys a building, or clogs up afountain, or does away with foods in a destructive manner, violates theprohibition of bal tashkhit. [23] According to Maimonides, "allneedless destruction is included in this prohibition; for instance,whoever bums a garment, or breaks a vessel needlessly, contravenes thecommand: 'you must not destroy."' The Gemara (a codified cod��i��fy?tr.v. cod��i��fied, cod��i��fy��ing, cod��i��fies1. To reduce to a code: codify laws.2. To arrange or systematize. commentary on Jewish law compiled in the fourth and fifth centuriesC.E.) instructs: "One who tears clothes in anger, breaks objects inanger, or squanders money in anger, should be in your eyes like anidolater." [24] According to the Babylonian Talmud, "anyonewho does not properly adjust the air flow of a lamp, thereby causingunnecessary fuel consumption, has violated the bal tashkhitprohibition." [25] The general principle is expressed in theShulkhan Arukh (a major codex codexManuscript book, especially of Scripture, early literature, or ancient mythological or historical annals. The earliest type of manuscript in the form of a modern book (i.e. of Jewish law compiled in the sixteenthcentury) of Jewish law: "It is forbidden to destroy or injureanything capable of being useful to men." [26] Since the concept of ownership is irrelevant to its application,this principle clearly limits private property rights; after alleverything belongs to God. Thus one is equally enjoined from wantonlydestroying one's own property as well as that of others. Notincidentally, one is also forbidden from destroying resources whichbelong to the commons, e.g., the fruit tree or the river in front of abesieged city. However in another sense the Talmudic texts interpreted baltashkhit more narrowly. Thus the Gemara in Baba Kamma suggests that eventhe protection of fruit trees may be overridden by economic need, whilethe Gemara in Sabbath not only claims that destruction for theprotection of health is permissible, but goes so far as to suggest thatboth a personal aesthetic preference as well as the gratification of apsychological need constitute sufficient grounds to override theprohibition of bal tashkhit. [27] Moreover, Jewish tradition does not regard the economicallyproductive use of natural resources as wasteful. Thus, according to acontemporary interpretation of a Talmudic passage, "if thetransformative use of any raw materials, including fruit-bearing trees,will produce more profit than using it in its present form, itstransformative use is permitted." [28] For Judaism, it is thewanton Grossly careless or negligent; reckless; malicious.The term wanton implies a reckless disregard for the consequences of one's behavior. A wanton act is one done in heedless disregard for the life, limbs, health, safety, reputation, or property rights of destructiveness of nature which is wrong. But by using natureproductively, humans appropriately mix their efforts with God'screation. The blessing recited before eating most meals--one of the mostfrequently recited Jewish prayers--thanks God for bringing forthbread--which requires the productive collaboration of humans and nature. The Non-Green Dimensions of Judaism While there are important differences between many contemporaryenvironmental challenges and those which faced the world in whichancient and medieval Jewish writers lived, the latter do prefigure pre��fig��ure?tr.v. pre��fig��ured, pre��fig��ur��ing, pre��fig��ures1. To suggest, indicate, or represent by an antecedent form or model; presage or foreshadow: andincorporate many "green" elements. But it is equally importantnot to ignore the important ways in which Jewish texts dissent from anumber of contemporary green values, especially those associated withradical ecology. [29] First, while Judaism clearly regards the preservation andprotection of nature as an important value, it is certainly not the mostimportant value. What is more important is performing mitzoot(commandments), all but a small portion of which deal with therelationship of people to God and to each other. Of the TenCommandments Ten Commandmentsor Decalogue[Gr.,=ten words], in the Bible, the summary of divine law given by God to Moses on Mt. Sinai. They have a paramount place in the ethical system in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. , only one--the commandment to keep the Sabbath--has even aremote relevance to the relationship of people to nature. A similarratio likely holds for the hundreds of other commandments Jews arerequired to observe. For Judaism, how people relate to their God and howthey relate to each other are more important than how they treat nature.Treating nature with respect and reverence is not incompatible with theformer, but neither can it be considered a substitute for revering Godand respecting other human beings. In this important sensejudaism maycontain "green" elements, but it is not a "green"religion. Second, the notion that humans are not just a part of nature, buthave distinctive--and privileged--moral claims is an integral part ofJewish thought. Thus preserving and maintaining human life is moreimportant than protecting or preserving nature. It is significant thatnone of the numerous restrictions on the human use of nature in Judaismendangers human life or society, though some--such as the restrictionson which animals can be eaten--may at times make its maintenance moredifficult. But Jewish concern for nature stops where the preservation ofhuman life begins. While numerous commandments speak to the compassionfor animal life, God did not hesitate to command the sacrifice of a wildram to save Isaac or numerous lambs to save the lives of the Israelitesin Egypt. Thus the Jewish tradition holds that while humans do haveresponsibilities for animals, these responsibilities should not come atthe expense of human welfare. As Saul Berman Rabbi Saul J. Berman is a prominent scholar and voice of the Modern Orthodox Jewish community.As a rabbi,scholar, and educator he has made extensive contributions to the intensification Jewish education for Jewish women on many levels, to the role of social ethics in notes, "It is notacceptable in Jewish law to make an assertion of the independent rightsof nature. The rights of nature need to be carefully balanced,calibrated cal��i��brate?tr.v. cal��i��brat��ed, cal��i��brat��ing, cal��i��brates1. To check, adjust, or determine by comparison with a standard (the graduations of a quantitative measuring instrument): against human interests; and in that balancing, it will bethe human interests which will have the priority." [30] In short,in Judaism, nature does not have rights; rather humans haveresponsibilities for the natural world. Third, while it is certainly true that a strain of self-denial runsthrough the observances of many Jewish holidays--including theSabbath--it is equally true that Judaism regards nature as something tobe used. Recall that the Promised Land is described as one of "milkand honey," and thus a place where nature is Lobe used and enjoyedby humans. Indeed, in Deuteronomy 8:7-9, God waxes eloquent indescribing its abundance: "When YHWH YHWHalso YHVH or JHVH or JHWH ?n.The Hebrew Tetragrammaton representing the name of God.Noun 1. YHWH - a name for the God of the Old Testament as transliterated from the Hebrew consonants YHVH your God brings you into agood land, a land of streams of water, springs and Ocean-flows, issuingfrom valleys and hills: a land of wheat and barley, (fruit of the) vine,fig, and pomegranate pomegranate(pŏm`grănĭt, pŏm`ə–), handsome deciduous and somewhat thorny large shrub or small tree (Punica granatum , a land of olives, oil and honey... aland whosestones are iron, and from whose hills you may hew hew?v. hewed, hewn or hewed, hew��ing, hewsv.tr.1. To make or shape with or as if with an ax: hew a path through the underbrush.2. copper." Whileman's use or taming of nature must not be "wasteful," theJewish concept of waste does not preclude the economically productiveuse of nature's assets or even the use of them to derivepsychological benefits. As one commentator observes, "the biblicalimperative requires finding a balance between transformation andpreservation." [31] In this context it is worth re-examining the recent criticisms madeby Jews of the activities of Pacific Lumber Company The Pacific Lumber Company or PALCO, owned by Maxxam Inc, is a logging company from northwestern California, USA. While their main function is still logging, they have expanded operations to include custom milling and treating. . This firm is ownedby Maxxam Corporation whose major shareholder is a Jewish businessman,Charles Hurwitz. After Pacific Lumber began to increase the rate atwhich the ancient redwoods on its property were being logged followingits takeover by Maxxam, a number of Jews, including several Rabbis,publicly appealed to its CEO (1) (Chief Executive Officer) The highest individual in command of an organization. Typically the president of the company, the CEO reports to the Chairman of the Board. to make a teskuvah sheleymak (a genuinechange of direction) and perform a great mitzvah by dedicating himselfto the preservation of the Headwaters Forest The Headwaters forest is a series of old growth redwood groves measuring about 60,000 acres (240 km2). Located in the northern region of the U.S. state of California, most of it is owned by timber company PalCo, which is owned by Charles Hurwitz and Maxxam Inc. . The company's criticsattempted to bring "Jewish wisdom and ethics" to bear on thisissue as a way of pressuring the firm's owner. [32] Preserving the redwoods in the Headwaters Forest may be a good orwise idea. But it is unclear that it is either mandated or logicallyflows from the teachings of Judaism. According to talmudicinterpretations of bal tashkhit, natural objects should not be wasted orneedlessly destroyed. But using the lumber harvested from the HeadwatersForest for commercial purposes is not necessarily wasteful. Rather itconstitutes an alternative use--one which may be more or less importantthan letting the trees remain standing. While it is clear that thecommunity does have a stake in what happens to the redwoods--after allHurwitz is a trustee for God's creation--this does not mean thatnone of these trees can be cut down for productive uses. What the Jewishtradition does require is that these trees be harvested in asustainable, non-exploitative way-- one that strikes an appropriatebalance between the need to protect what God has created and the needsof humans to use nature to sustain life. Judaism does not view nature as inherently benevolent. Whilerecognizing the beauty and majesty of the natural world, it alsoperceives that nature can also be terrifying ter��ri��fy?tr.v. ter��ri��fied, ter��ri��fy��ing, ter��ri��fies1. To fill with terror; make deeply afraid. See Synonyms at frighten.2. To menace or threaten; intimidate. and threatening. Accordingto Jewish thought, human efforts to discipline or subdue nature do not,as many radical ecologists claim, stem from the urge to dominate naturebut rather represent a response to the real challenges to human survivalposed by the natural world. [33] Notwithstanding the achievements ofmodern science and technology, these challenges have by no meansdisappeared. These four ideas--that protecting the natural world is not thehighest imperative, that human life is more important than non-humanlife, that nature is to be used and enjoyed as well as preserved, andthat nature can threaten humans just as humans can threatennature--should not be viewed as the outdated legacies of apre-industrial religion. They represent an important contribution tocontemporary efforts to define and redefine the appropriate ethicalrelationship An ethical relationship, in most theories of ethics that employ the term, is a basic and trustworthy relationship that one has to another human being, that cannot necessarily be characterized in terms of any abstraction other than trust and common protection of each other's body. between people and the physical world in which they liveand which God created. DAVID VOGEL David Vogel is the name of:David Vogel (Russian writer) (1891-1944), Russian-born Jewish poet, novelist, and diarist.David Vogel (professor) (b.1949), professor of political science and business, UC Berkeley. is a Professor in the Haas School of Business and theDepartment of Political Science at the University of California atBerkeley (body, education) University of California at Berkeley - (UCB)See also Berzerkley, BSD.http://berkeley.edu/.Note to British and Commonwealth readers: that's /berk'lee/, not /bark'lee/ as in British Received Pronunciation. . He has published extensively on environmental politics andpolicies. He is also the author of "Israeli Environmental Policy inComparative Perspective," Israel Affairs (Winter-Spring 1999), andco-editor of Israel: The Dynamics of Change and Continuity (1999). NOTES (*.) The author would like to thank the following individuals fortheir helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article: Robert Alter,Eugene Bardach, Zev Brinner, Kenneth Cohen cohenor kohen(Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , Edwin Epstein, ClaudeFisher, Rabbi Stuart Kelman, Christine Rosen, Eric Schulzke, AdamWeisberg. A different version of this article was published in BusinessEthics business ethics,the study and evaluation of decision making by businesses according to moral concepts and judgments. Ethical questions range from practical, narrowly defined issues, such as a company's obligation to be honest with its customers, to broader social Quarterly. (1.) This article draws on the extensive contemporary literature onJudaism and the environment, including four articles which have beenpublish in Judaism: Jeremy Benstein, "One, Walking and Studying...:Nature vs. Torah," Judaism (Spring 1995): 146-168; David David, in the BibleDavid,d. c.970 B.C., king of ancient Israel (c.1010–970 B.C.), successor of Saul. The Book of First Samuel introduces him as the youngest of eight sons who is anointed king by Samuel to replace Saul, who had been deemed a failure. Ehrenfeldand Philip Bentley, "Judaism and the Practice of Stewardship,"Judaism Vol.34 No. 3 (Summer 1985): 301-311; Eilon Schwartz,"Judaism and Nature: Theological and Moral Issues to Consider WhileRenegotiating a Jewish Relationship to the Nature World," Judaism(Fall 1995): 437-447. This literature includes more than a score ofscholarly and popular essays and articles as well as two volumes ofessays: Saul Berman, "Jewish Environmental Values: The DynamicTension Between Nature and Human Needs," in To Till end To Tend: AGuide to Jewish Environmental Study and Action, edited by the Coalitionon the Environment and Jewish Life The Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life (COEJL) is the leading Jewish environmental organization in the United States. It was founded in 1993 and is based in New York City. (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : The Coalition on theEnvironment and Jewish life, 1995); Jeremy Benstein, "Leave NatureOut of the War," The J erusalem Report (September 7, 1995): 32;Mark Bleiweiss, "Jewish Waste Ethics," Jewish Spectator (Fall1995): 17-19; Eliezer Diamond, "Jewish Perspectives on LimitingConsumption," in Ecology and the Jewish Spirit: Where Nature andthe Sacred Meet, edited by Ellen Bernstein (Woodstock, VT: Jewish LightsPublishing, 1998), pp. 80-89; Eliezer Finkelman, "Kee Tetze: DoAnimals Have Full Moral Standing?," Jewish Bulletin of NorthernCalifornia Northern California, sometimes referred to as NorCal, is the northern portion of the U.S. state of California. The region contains the San Francisco Bay Area, the state capital, Sacramento; as well as the substantial natural beauty of the redwood forests, the northern (August 23, 1996); Eric Freudenstein, "Ecology and theJewish Tradition," Judaism (Fall 1970): 1-11; Everett Gendler,"The Earth's Covenant," Reconstructionist(November-December 1989): 28-31; Robert Gordis Robert Gordis (1908 - 1992) was a leading Conservative rabbi. He founded the first Conservative day school, served as President of the Rabbinical Assembly and the Synagogue Council of America, and was a professor at Jewish Theological Seminary from 1940 to 1992. , "Ecology in theJewish Tradition," Midstream (October 1995): 19-23; Robert Gordis,"The Earth is the Lord's: Judaism and the Spoliation Any erasure, interlineation, or other alteration made to Commercial Paper, such as a check or promissory note, by an individual who is not acting pursuant to the consent of the parties who have an interest in such instrument. ofNature," Keeping Posted (December 1970): 5-9; Ismar Schorsch,"Leaning To Live With Less: A Jewish Perspective," unpublishedtalk, September 14, 1990; Abraham Stahl, "Educating for Change inAttitudes Toward Nature and Environment Am ong Oriental Jews inIsrael," Environment and Behavior (January 1993): 3 -21; DanielSwartz, "Jews, Jewish Texts, and Nature: A Brief History," inTo Till and to Tend, pp. 1-14; Samuel Weintraub, "The SpiritualEcology Spiritual ecology is a recent term that refers to the intersection between religion and spirituality and environment. Practitioners of spiritual ecology fall into three categories: the scientific and academic, spiritual or religious environmentalism, and religious or spiritual of Kashrut," in To Till and To Tend, pp. 21-24; AubreyRose, ed., Judaism and Ecology (London: Cassell, 1992). In addition, theJewish environmental organization Shomrei Adamah: Keepers of the Earthhas published two volumes: A Garden of Choice Fruit, a collection of 200classic Jewish quotes on human beings and the environment, and Let TheEarth Teach You Torah, a guidebook for teaching Jewish perspectives onthe environment: Ellen Bernstein and Dan Fink, Let the Earth Teach YouTorah (Philadelphia: Shomrei Adamah, 1992); David Stein David Stein can refer to more than one person: David Stein (art forger) David Stein (BDSM writer) David Stein (radio host) , ed., A Gardenof Choice Fruit (Wyncote, PA: Shomrei Adnmah, 1991). The Coalition onthe Environment and Jewish Life represents a large number of Jewishorganizations and engages in environmental advocacy and education inboth the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. and Israel. The Jew ish-oriented, left-of-centermonthly Tikkun has periodically published articles which present Jewishperspectives on biodiversity as well as on other current environmentalissues and they have been regularly discussed in Judaism. See, forexample, Bradley Shavit Artson Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson (b. 1959) is an author, speaker, and the Dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the University of Judaism in Los Angeles, California, where he is Vice-President. , "A Jewish Celebration ofBiodiversity," Tikkun 12 (5): 43-45. (2.) For a discussion of these two perspectives, see AvnerDe-Shalit and Moti Talias, "Green or Blue and White? EnvironmentalControversies in Israel," Environmental Politics (Summer 1995):273-294. For a discussion of deep ecology, see George Sessions, ed.,Deep Ecology for the 21st Century (Boston: Shambhala, 1995). (3.) See, for example, Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Rootsof Our Ecologic Crisis," Science, March 10, 1976, p. 1207. (4.) Unless otherwise noted, all Biblical quotations are from TheFive Books of Moses: A New Translation, with Introductions, Commentary,and notes by Everett Fox Everett Fox is a scholar and translator of the Hebrew Bible. He is currently the Allen M. Glick Professor of Judaic and Biblical Studies at Clark University.Fox is perhaps best known for his translation into English of the Torah. (New York: Schocken Books, 1995). (5.) Quoted in Bernstein, p. 32. (6.) Quoted in Diamond, p. 85. (7.) Quoted in Gordis, p. 20. (8.) Quoted in Ehrenfeld and Bentley, P. 302. (9.) Quoted in Stahl, p. 6. (10.) Quoted in Meir Tamari ta��ma��ri?n.Soy sauce made without wheat.[Japanese.] , With All Your Possessions (Jerusalem:Jason Aronson, 1998), p. 280. (11.) Berman, p. 15. (12.) Schorsch, p. 6. (13.) Quoted in Marc Swetlitz, "Living As If God Mattered:Heschel's View of Nature and Humanity," in Ecology and theJewish Spirit, p. 247. (14.) Gladis, p. 22. (15.) Gordis, p. 8. (16.) See Gordis, p. 20. (17.) See, for example, the various essays in Carolyn Merchant Carolyn Merchant (born circa 1936 in Rochester, New York, U.S.) is an American ecofeminist philosopher and historian of science most famous for her theory on the 'Death of Nature', whereby she identifies the Enlightenment as the period when science began to atomise, objectify and ,ed., Ecology: Key Concepts in Critical Theory (New Jersey: HumanitiesPress, 1994). (18.) Quoted in Swartz, p 6. (19.) Quoted in Swartz, p. 4. (20.) Swartz, p. 5. (21.) Swartz, p. 5. (22.) Quoted in Stahl, p. 7. For a detailed exegesis of this text,which appears to admit of a variety of interpretations, see Benstein,"One, Walking..." (23.) Quoted in Gordis, p. 22. (24.) Quoted in Bleiweiss, p. 18. (25.) Quoted in Diamond, "Jewish Perspectives," p. 87. (26.) Quoted in Gordis, p. 22. (27.) Berman, p. 16, 17. (28.) Bernstein, p. 87. (29.) A number of writers have pointed to the danger of"study(ing) the Sources with an eye for those particular teachingsthat are inspirational for--or at least compatible with--one's ownpredetermined pre��de��ter��mine?v. pre��de��ter��mined, pre��de��ter��min��ing, pre��de��ter��minesv.tr.1. To determine, decide, or establish in advance: 'green' positions and thus avoiding challengingoneself with texts that don't fit current environmentalwisdom." Benstein, "One Walking...," p. 147. (30.) Berman, p. 17. (31.) Diamond, "Jewish Perspectives," p. 82. (32.) Arthur Waskow Arthur Ocean Waskow, born Arthur I. Waskow, (born 1933 in Baltimore, Maryland) is an American author, political activist, and rabbi associated with the Jewish Renewal movement. , "Redwoods, Tobacco, and Torah,"Tikkun 12 (5): 35. (33.) For a very different interpretation, see, for example, theclaim made by a number of the contributors to Irene Diamond Irene Diamond (May 7 1910 - January 21, 2003) was a Hollywood talent scout and later in life a prominent philanthropist.She was married to prominent realtor Aaron Diamond and lived in New York City. and GloriaOrenstein, Reweaving The World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism Ecofeminism is a minor social and political movement which unites environmentalism and feminism[1], with some currents linking deep ecology and feminism.[2] (SanFrancisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Sierra Books, 1990).