Human skeletal remains from Tomb 1, Sipan (Lambayeque river valley, Peru); and their social implications.

Human skeletal remains from Tomb 1, Sipan (Lambayeque river valley, Peru); and their social implications. IntroductionIn late 1987 and early 1988, an archaeological team led by WalterAlva, Director of the Bruning Archaeological Museum, excavated the firstof a series of high-status Moche tombs at the site of Sipan (HuacaRajada), in the central Lambayeque River Valley on the north coast ofPeru. The context and contents of the Sipan tombs have been described byAlva & Donnan (1993) and Alva (1994); they provide a rareopportunity to examine the mortuary practices of the elite in the earlyto middle phases of the Moche state (c. AD 300) (Donnan 1995). Thisarticle presents my analysis of the human skeletal remains recoveredfrom the first large chamber tomb at Sipan, designated Tomb 1 (Alva& Donnan 1993).In January 1988, at the invitation of Walter Alva, I visited the siteof Sipan and recorded information on the skeletal material as it wasbeing excavated. After the remains had been removed from the field, Iconducted additional study of the material at the Bruning Museum inLambayeque. The objective was to provide information on the age, sex andphysical characteristics of the individuals interred in Tomb 1, and toexamine the remains for evidence of pathology and possible cause ofdeath.The skeletonsNine human skeletons were recovered from Tomb 1, designated[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]:Skeleton 1: the principal burial in the tombSkeleton 2: adult male placed above roof of the tombSkeleton 3: adolescent female at head of Skeleton 1Skeleton 4: adolescent female at feet of Skeleton 1Skeleton 5: adult male at Skeleton 1's right sideSkeleton 6: adult male at Skeleton 1's left sideSkeleton 7: adolescent female under Skeleton 3Skeleton 8: child in southwest corner of the tombSkeleton 9: adult female in niche above the roof of the tombGeneral observationsHuman skeletal remains and other organic materials in Tomb I arerelatively poorly preserved compared to contemporaneous materials I haveexamined from other Moche sites (Verano 1987; 1994a; 1994b; 1997).Factors causing this likely include pressure from tomb fill andoverlying overlyingsuffocation of piglets by the sow. The piglets may be weak from illness or malnutrition, the sow may be clumsy or ill, the pen may be inadequate in size or poorly designed so that piglets cannot escape. sediment, acidity of the clay matrix in which the tombcontents were embedded, and dampness from ground water and occasionalepisodes of heavy rainfall.In an attempt to preserve the fragile skeletal remains and tofacilitate their removal, the excavation team applied a polyvinylacetate consolidant to the skeletons as they were exposed. While theconsolidant permitted the skeletons to be removed in block for transportto the Bruning Museum [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED], its presencemade subsequent cleaning and study of the osseous osseous/os��se��ous/ (os��e-us) of the nature or quality of bone; bony. os��se��ousadj.Composed of, containing, or resembling bone; bony. remains moredifficult. Solvents applied to separate the skeletal material from itscemented matrix of clay and consolidant were found to cause additionaldamage to the fragile bone. For this reason, treatment was limited togentle cleaning of the exposed surfaces of bones. The presence of metalobjects, beaded pectorals and other grave-goods presented additionalchallenges. Many of these were removed during excavation, others left inplace and treated with polyvinyl acetate. In such cases, little of theunderlying skeletal material could be observed, and complete examinationof the skeleton was not possible.Skeleton 1I examined the skeleton of the principal burial of Tomb 1 at theBruning Museum. The bones are in very poor condition, and most aresplintered into small fragments. The best-preserved elements of theskeleton are the skull and mandible mandible/man��di��ble/ (man��di-b'l) the horseshoe-shaped bone forming the lower jaw, articulating with the skull at the temporomandibular joint.mandib��ular man��di��blen. , the bodies of four vertebrae VertebraeBones in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the body that make up the vertebral column. Vertebrae have a central foramen (hole), and their superposition makes up the vertebral canal that encloses the spinal cord. (T11,T12, L1, L2), and the calcanei.Burial position was extended on the back, with the hands at thesides. The bones comprising the left elbow joint elbow jointn.A compound hinge joint between the humerus and the bones of the forearm. Also called cubital joint. are well enoughpreserved to indicate that the left forearm was supinated, with the palmof the hand facing upward. The right arm, less well preserved, appearsto have had a similar orientation. Both feet were stronglyplantarflexed, with the soles of the feet facing one another.Silver sandals lay between the feet, with the right sandal slightlyoverlapping the left. The sole of the right sandal, well preserved, hasa maximum length of 230 mm along the central axis, and a maximum widthat the ball of the foot of 102 mm. If the sandals conformed to the sizeof the feet of the deceased, these measurements indicate relativelyshort, wide feet. Unfortunately, the poor state of preservation permitsfew measurements of the skeleton (TABLE 1). [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED]The skull, although badly crushed by overburden in the tomb, can bereconstructed [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]. It shows moderatelydeveloped superciliary arches, relatively large mastoid mastoid/mas��toid/ (mas��toid)1. breast-shaped.2. mastoid process.3. pertaining to the mastoid process.mas��toidn.The mastoid process. processes withwell-developed supramastoid crests and a prominent external occipitalprotuberance protuberance/pro��tu��ber��ance/ (-too��ber-ans) a projecting part, or prominence.mental protuberance . It also exhibits pronounced artificial flattening of theoccipital region. The dentition dentition,kind, number, and arrangement of the teeth of humans and other animals. During the course of evolution, teeth were derived from bony body scales similar to the placoid scales on the skin of modern sharks. is relatively well preserved, although anumber of tooth crowns are broken or have portions of enamel spalledoff. A complete adult dentition is present, with no ante-mortem toothloss or other evidence of dental disease, with the exception of thelower left second molar second molarn.The seventh permanent or fifth deciduous tooth located in the upper and lower jaw on either side. , which shows a carious car��i��ousadj.Having caries; decayed.carious (ker´ēus),adj pertaining to caries or decay. lesion on its occlusalsurface. The teeth show little occlusal wear, limited in most cases toenamel polishing and moderate cusp wear. Dentine dentine,n See dentin.dentineone of the hard tissues of the teeth which constitutes most of its bulk. Lies between the pulp cavity and the enamel, and where it is not covered by enamel is covered by cementum, the third hard substance exposure is confined toseveral small patches on the occlusal surfaces of the first molars.Several indications of age-related degenerative changes are seen inthe skeleton. The margins of the centra of the 11th and 12th thoracicvertebrae Thoracic vertebraeThe vertebrae in the chest region to which the ribs attach.Mentioned in: Spinal Instrumentation show slight osteophytic lipping. The head of the righteleventh rib also shows pitting and lipping of the margins of thearticular articular/ar��tic��u��lar/ (ahr-tik��u-ler) pertaining to a joint. ar��tic��u��laradj.Of or relating to a joint or joints.articularpertaining to a joint. surface. No other evidence of skeletal pathology is present,but very little of the skeleton is sufficiently preserved to allowobservations.Although the os coxae os cox��aen.The hipbone. is too poorly preserved to be useful for sexdetermination, morphological features of the skull (relatively largemastoid processes, well-developed supramastoid crests and externaloccipital protuberance) and postcranial post��cra��ni��aladj.1. Situated behind the cranium.2. Consisting of the parts or structures behind the cranium. skeleton (general size androbusticity of the bones) suggest the remains of a male. The incipientarthritic changes seen in the vertebrae and ribs, along with the lack ofpronounced dental wear, suggest an age at death of approximately 35 to45 years (age and sex determinations use techniques outlined in Bass(1987), Krogman & Iscan (1986) and Ubelaker (1989)).Evidence of cultural alteration is present in the artificialflattening of the occipital bomb, a finding reported in Moche burialsfrom other sites (Stewart 1943; Weiss 1972; Donnan & Mackey 1978).In a sample of 96 Moche crania cra��ni��a?n.A plural of cranium. from the site of Pacatnamu in theJequetepeque River Valley, 58 (60%) show some degree of occipitalflattening, with deformation present in approximately equal frequency inmales and in females. It varies substantially in its degree ofexpression and is usually asymmetrical relative to the sagittal plane,suggesting that the flattening is more likely an unintentional result ofcradle-boarding during childhood than an attempt to alter head shape foraesthetic reasons (Verano 1994; 1997). The occipital flattening on theskull of this high-status individual indicates that he was bound to acradleboard cra��dle��board?n.A board or frame on which an infant is secured, as by binding or wrapping in a blanket, used by certain Native American peoples as a portable cradle and for carrying an infant on the back. as an infant like any common Moche child.TABLE 2. Stature estimates for Moche burials at Pacatnamu and datafrom contemporary residents of two traditional communities in theLambayeque Valley. (Sources: Verano 1994; Lasker 1962.)sample period no. mean range stature (cm)malesPacatnamu Moche 53 157.6 148.2-168.7San Jose Modern 46 156.6 (*)Monsefu Modern 67 158-6 (*)femalesPacatnamu Moche 52 146.8 139.4-156.0San Jose Modern 49 145.1 (*)Monsefu Modern 97 145.8 (*)* range not givenThe right femur femur(fē`mər): see leg. of skeleton 1, badly fragmented, was measured insitu; with Genoves' (1967) formula it yielded a stature estimate ofapproximately 166 cm. TABLE 2 presents stature estimates for Mocheburials at the site of Pacatnamu in the Jequetepeque Valley (Verano1997) and measurements of modern residents of two traditionalcommunities in the Lambayeque Valley (Lasker 1962). Compared to theprehistoric and modern samples, the principal burial in Tomb 1 wasrelatively tall, falling near the upper end of the range for Pacatnamumales.Skeleton 2Skeleton 2, the 'guard' of Tomb 1 (Alva 1988), was alsoexamined at the Bruning Museum. Burial position was extended on theback, with the hands at the sides. The skeletal remains are very poorlypreserved, and none of the long bones can be measured. Morphology of thepelvis indicates male sex, and dental eruption, tooth wear, andmorphology of the pubic symphysis are all consistent with an age atdeath of between 20 and 30 years, most likely closer to 20. No evidenceof pathology is visible, although very little of the skeleton could beexamined.During the excavation of Skeleton 2, it had been noted that the bonesof the feet were missing (Alva 1988; Alva & Donnan 1993: 55; Alva1994: 45). I examined the skeleton for evidence of cut marks or othertrauma, but the distal ends of the tibiae and fibulae were too poorlypreserved to permit observations.Skeleton 3Skeleton 3 lay at the south end of the coffin of the principalburial. Body position was extended, face down, with the head to theeast. Both arms run parallel to the body, with the hands to the sides.Morphology of the greater sciatic notch and pubis pubis/pu��bis/ (pu��bis) [L.] pubic bone. pu��bisn. pl. pu��bes1. See pubic bone.2. The hair of the pubic region just above the external genitals. indicate a female.Epiphyses of the proximal tibiae, distal femora fem��o��ra?n.A plural of femur. , proximal humeri, distalradius and ulna ulna:see arm. , and hand metacarpals and phalanges are unfused,indicating an age at death of approximately 15-18 years. The skull showsartificial flattening of the occipital bone. Maximum length of the leftfemur yielded a stature estimate of approximately 153 cm (epiphyseal epiphyseal/epi��phys��e��al/ (ep?i-fiz��e-al) pertaining to or of the nature of an epiphysis. epiphysealemanating from or pertaining to the epiphysis. union not complete); (TABLE 1). No evidence of skeletal or dentalpathology is present.Skeleton 4Skeleton 4 lay at the feet of the principal burial. Burial positionwas extended, with the head to the west. The body appears to have beenplaced on its right side, although there is some discongruity in theposition of certain skeletal elements (below). Most of the skull,obscured by a copper headdress headdress,head covering or decoration, protective or ceremonial, which has been an important part of costume since ancient times. Its style is governed in general by climate, available materials, religion or superstition, and the dictates of fashion. , could not be examined. Pelvic morphologyindicates that the skeleton is that of a female. All visible long-boneepiphyses appear to be closed, but the heads of several metatarsals arestill unfused. Maximum length of the right femur yields a statureestimate of approximately 159 cm (TABLE 1).Skeleton 5Skeleton 5 lay to the east side of the principal burial. Burialposition was extended on the back, with the head to the south. Most ofthe skeleton was covered with copper objects, which obscured all but thetop of the skull, a portion of the mandible, and bones of the lower legsand right hand. The mandible is large and strongly built, with arectangular chin and large teeth, features that suggest a male. Dentalwear is pronounced, with dentine exposed over the entire crown of thefirst molars and in large patches on the second and third molars. Dentalwear suggests an age of 35-45 years at death, based on attrition rates Ihave observed in other Moche samples. From maximum length of the righttibia tibia:see leg. (TABLE 1), living stature was estimated at 158 cm.Skeleton 6Skeleton 6 was found to the west side of the coffin of the principalburial. The skeleton lay extended on its back with the head to thenorth, the feet placed together, and the hands at the sides. Size androbustness of the skull and mandible indicate a male. Dental wear iscomparable to that of Skeleton 5, with exposure of dentine over most ofthe occlusal surfaces of the first molars, and patches exposed on thesecond and third molars. The loss of the upper left central incisor incisor/in��ci��sor/ (I) (-si��zer)1. adapted for cutting.2. incisor tooth.in��ci��sorn. during life is the only evidence of dental pathology. From the degree ofdental wear and the absence of pronounced degenerative changes in theskeleton, age at death is estimated at between 35 and 45 years. Frommaximum length of the right femur, living stature is estimated atapproximately 160 cm (TABLE 1).Skeleton 7Skeleton 7 lay at the south end of the coffin of the principalburial, directly under Skeleton 3. It lay on its back with the legsextended and the head to the east. The left arm was fully extended, withthe hand lying alongside the pelvis. The right arm was flexed nearly 90[degrees] at the elbow very near; at hand.See also: Elbow , and lay across the abdominal region.Age of death is estimated at 15-18 years based on dentalcalcification calcification/cal��ci��fi��ca��tion/ (kal?si-fi-ka��shun) the deposit of calcium salts in a tissue.dystrophic calcification and epiphyseal closure. Epiphyses showing no union includethe coracoid process coracoid processn.A long curved projection from the neck of the scapula, overhanging the glenoid cavity and giving attachment to the short head of the biceps, the coracobrachial muscle, the smaller pectoral muscle, and the coracoacromial ligament. of the left scapula scapula/scap��u��la/ (skap��u-lah) pl. scap��ulae ? [L.] shoulder blade; the flat, triangular bone in the back of the shoulder. scap��ular scap��u��lan. pl. , the head of the right humerus humerus:see arm. ,proximal left radius and distal right ulna, distal tibiae, andepiphyseal rings of the vertebrae; epiphyses of the proximal and distalfemur show partial union. The permanent dentition is complete, with theexception of the third molars, which are partially erupted, with rootsapproximately two-thirds complete. The pelvis is too fragmentary toassess sex, but the skull shows small mastoid processes and a lack ofpronounced muscle attachment areas. These features, along with generalsize of the skeleton, suggest a female. Maximum length of the left femuryields a stature estimate of approximately 157 cm (TABLE 1).Examination of the dentition reveals a large carious lesion on thelower right first molar that destroyed nearly half of the tooth crown[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4A OMITTED]. Smaller dental caries are presenton the interproximal surfaces of the upper right canine and firstpremolar premolar/pre��mo��lar/ (P) (-mo��ler)1. see under tooth.2. situated in front of the molar teeth.pre��mo��larn. , and cervical caries on the upper left first and secondpremolarsSkeleton 8Skeleton 8 was found in the southwest corner of the tomb, seated withits back against the corner. The individual appears to have been fullyarticulated when buried, although there was subsequent collapse andsettling of skeletal elements. The remains are those of a child,approximately 9-10 years of age, from dental calcification and eruption.Examination of the dentition reveals a large carious lesion on theocclusal surface of the deciduous deciduous/de��cid��u��ous/ (de-sid��u-us) falling off or shed at maturity, as the teeth of the first dentition. de��cid��u��ousadj.1. upper second molar, and multiplehypoplastic HypoplasticIncomplete or underdevelopment of a tissue or organ. Hypoplastic left heart syndrome is the most serious type of congenital heart disease.Mentioned in: Congenital Heart Diseasehypoplastic,adj lines on the permanent canine crowns. The hypoplastic linesreflect several episodes of developmental stress, either illness ordietary deficiency, from which the child had recovered, but which left apermanent record in the developing tooth crowns (Skinner & Goodman1992). The carious lesion on the deciduous molar also might reflect poorhealth, as caries on the deciduous teeth are quite rare in other Mocheskeletal samples (Verano 1997).Skeleton 8 also shows a developmental defect, occipitalization of theatlas (Barnes 1994: 81-99), or fusion of the first cervical vertebra vertebra/ver��te��bra/ (ver��te-brah) pl. ver��tebrae ? [L.] any of the 33 bones of the vertebral (spinal) column, comprising 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 4 coccygeal vertebrae . tothe occipital bone. The fusion, probably not noticed during life, wouldhave caused minor loss of mobility in the neck. A number of examples ofthe defect are known from prehistoric skeletal samples from coastalPeru; it is not considered particularly rare (Barnes 1994: 92). No otherevidence of pathology is seen in the skeleton.Skeleton 9Skeleton 9 was found in a seated position in a niche cut out of thetomb chamber wall above the level of the timber roof (Alva & Donnan1993: figure 134; Alva 1994: Lamina LAMINA - A concurrent object-oriented language.["Experiments with a Knowledge-based System on a Multiprocessor", Third Intl Conf Supercomputing Proc, 1988]. 141). It was unavailable for studyduring my visits to the site, but photographs indicate clearly femalemorphology of the os coxae, and the presence of an erupted lower thirdmolar and fused epiphyses of the long bones indicates adult age.Burial position and articulation patternsDuring examination of the skeletons in situ, and subsequently at theBruning Museum, some unusual patterns were noted in body position andarticulation. The four male skeletons (1, 2, 5 & 6), fullyarticulated, lay in the tomb extended on their dorsal side, thecharacteristic Moche burial position documented at numerous Moche sites(Larco Hoyle 1945; UbbelohdeDoering 1959; 1967; Donnan & Mackey1978; Verano 1987; Donnan 1995). The other burials in Tomb 1 showedvariations from this position: Skeletons 8 and 9 were in a seatedposition, and the three adolescent females lay on their sides or facedown. More importantly, disarticulation disarticulation/dis��ar��tic��u��la��tion/ (dis?ahr-tik?u-la��shun) exarticulation; amputation or separation at a joint. dis��ar��tic��u��la��tionn. and scattering of some skeletalelements is evident in the three adolescent females.The adolescent femalesFeatures of Skeletons 3, 4 & 7 suggest their remains were placedin the tomb not around the time of death, but after substantialdecomposition of the soft tissues. The evidence is most apparent inSkeletons 3 & 7 from the south end of the tomb, with nearly completedisarticulation and jumbling of the ribs and vertebrae [ILLUSTRATION FORFIGURES 5, 6 OMITTED]. Skeleton 7 shows additional skeletal elements outof normal position, including a fragment of the body of the sternum sternum:see rib. , abone from the right wrist and an isolated third molar - all found duringcleaning of the matrix around the right parietal bone. Skeleton 4, theadolescent female from the north end of the tomb, does not show thedegree of bone scattering seen in Skeletons 3 & 7 [ILLUSTRATION FORFIGURE 7 OMITTED], but disarticulation and rotation of skeletal elementsare beyond what is expected in the in situ decomposition of a freshbody. Specifically, there is an incongruity in��con��gru��i��ty?n. pl. in��con��gru��i��ties1. Lack of congruence.2. The state or quality of being incongruous.3. Something incongruous.Noun 1. between the orientation ofthe upper and lower halves of the body. The legs, pelvis and visibleportions of the vertebral column are oriented properly for a body lyingface down. The left arm, shoulder and part of the rib-cage are rotatedapproximately 90 [degrees] anti-clockwise, into the appropriate positionfor a body lying on its right side. Also the right elbow isdisarticulated, the foot bones are jumbled and the left patella patella(pətĕl`ə): see kneecap. lies onthe dorsal side of the left tibia - clearly out of normal position[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 8 OMITTED].This evidence suggests the three adolescent females were not primaryinterments; the rotation of limbs and jumbling of bones indicate thatthe remains were moved following the early stages of decomposition.Differential patterns of bone disarticulation suggest that the thoracicand abdominal regions were more thoroughly decomposed at the time thebodies were moved, while limbs preserved sufficient soft tissue tomaintain joint articulations. Given the normally dry conditions of theLambayeque Valley, it is difficult to estimate how much time elapsedbetween death and final burial of the adolescent females. Spontaneousmummification is common in bodies buried in the dry sand of the northerncoastal valley margins, and desiccated bodies can remain relativelystable for centuries if protected from moisture. The principalindividual in Tomb I was buried in a wood plank coffin. The surroundingextended burials (Skeletons 2-7) were buried in cane coffins or on caneframes wrapped in textile (Alva & Donnan 1993; Alva 1994; Donnan1995). It is possible that the adolescent females were buried or storedin their cane coffins in another location, then disinterred and placedin Tomb I along with the principal burial; the transporting and loweringof the coffins into the tomb shifting their contents.Relationships of the skeletons in Tomb 1The presence of seven human skeletons surrounding the coffin of theprincipal burial of Tomb i raises the question of their relationship tohim, as well as to one another; their identified sex and ages mayprovide insight. Skeleton 2, a young adult male, is presumed to have therole of guarding the tomb. Skeleton 9, the adult female placed in aniche above the roof of the tomb, is also presumed to be a retainer forthe tomb. Skeletons 5 & 6, both males of approximately the same age(35-50 years) lay at each side of the principal coffin. Like Skeleton Ithey were extended in the standard Moche burial position and presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. were primary interments.At the head and feet of the wooden coffin were three adolescentfemales, with patterns of skeletal disarticulation suggesting secondary,or delayed burial. One can only speculate as to whether they wererelatives, wives, consorts or sacrifices; their being females in the15-20-year age-range lends support to the :idea of sacrifice rather thannatural death.The child's skeleton found in the southwest corner of the tombis unusual for its flexed and seated burial position. While perhaps ofsome symbolic significance, its position may simply reflect a lack ofspace in the tomb, as suggested by one of the excavators (Luis Cheropers. comm.); retainer burials in other elite Moche tombs are frequentlyfound in non-standard positions (Verano 1995: 197).Cause of deathNo cause of death is evident in any of the Tomb I skeletons. With theexception of dental caries in Skeletons 7 & 8, neither evidence ofactive disease nor obvious indication of injury or violent death ispresent, but the skeletons are in poor condition. The seven humanskeletons surrounding the principal burial strongly suggests individualswho either sacrificed themselves or were sacrificed by others toaccompany him to the grave.Tombs 2 and 3A second large chamber tomb, Tomb 2, discovered at Sipan in 1988(Alva & Donnan 1993; Alva 1994), shows similarities to Tomb 1 in itsgeneral form and contents. It also contained a principal burial in awood plank coffin, surrounded by extended burials in cane coffins orburial shrouds. Although Tomb 2 also had a young adult male'guard' with missing feet, and a female retainer in the tombchamber, none of the skeletons showed disarticulated or jumbledelements. The third high-status tomb at Sipan, Tomb 3, considerablysmaller in size, contained only a principal burial and a sacrificedfemale forced into a small space at one end of the tomb (Alva &Donnan 1993; Alva 1994; Verano 1995:197). From the three intacthigh-status tombs excavated at Sipan, it is clear that there wasconsiderable variability in the form and contents of elite tombs.Sipan and Moche funerary fu��ner��ar��y?adj.Of or suitable for a funeral or burial.[Latin fner traditionIn a recent survey of Moche funerary practices, Donnan (1995) arguesthat the Sipan tombs, although clearly the most elaborate everscientifically excavated, conform to basic canons of mortuary behaviourshared by both commoners and elites in Moche society. This patterninvolves standardized burial position, the placement of the corpse in ashroud and additional wrapping of mats, cane tubes or coffins; theplacement of objects in the hands and mouth, and general features of theburial chamber. Donnan sees a continuum from the simplest shroud-wrappedbodies in shallow pits with few grave-offerings to elite tombs withlarge quantities of grave-offerings, including animal and humansacrifices. Retainer burials in Moche tombs are relatively rare, buthave been reported from elite Moche tombs in four northern coastalvalleys (Donnan 1995). In most of these cases, the retainers appear tohave been sacrificed and placed (often in a perfunctory manner) in thetomb of a high-status individual. Female retainers in Tombs 2 and 3 atSipan conform to this pattern (Verano 1995). The distinctive feature ofTomb 1 is the evidence of delayed burial of three of the individualsaccompanying the principal interment.While this is the first reported example of such behaviour among theMoche, recent excavations at the site of San Jose de Moro in theJequetepeque River Valley have uncovered additional examples of jumbledbones in some of the relatively high-status 'boot' tombs atthe site. Nelson & Mackey (1997) report patterns of disarticulationand jumbling of the bones of the thoracic area quite similar to thatseen at Sipan, and interpret this as evidence of delayed burial. UnlikeSipan, however, these are not sacrifices accompanying an elite burial,but are the principal occupants of tombs. Nelson & Mackey suggest aspossible explanations an extended funerary ritual resulting in partialdecomposition of the corpse, followed by shifting of the body duringtransportation and lowering of the coffin into the tomb.In the case of Tomb 1 at Sipan, the most complex and elaborate Mochetomb known, an extended mortuary ritual would certainly be expected; itis possible that many or all of the bodies, including the principalburial, were in a state of advanced decomposition when the tomb wassealed. However, the principal burial and the two males flanking himeither were not substantially decomposed when lowered into the tomb orwere handled in such a way that the contents of their coffins did notshift. Perhaps the adolescent females were manipulated more than othersduring the placement of offerings in the tomb, resulting in greaterdisturbance of their remains. Alternatively, their bodies may have beenbrought from distant locations, perhaps as offerings. Given the unusualpreservational conditions of coastal Peru, it is possible that theseindividuals had been dead for many years before being relocated to Tomb1.Old World parallelsBrothwell (1987) has found a similar pattern of partiallydisarticulated skeletons in medieval burials from the Jewbury cemeteryin York. He notes (1987: 23) that in these cases,The disarray of bones affected the trunk in particular, so that ribsand vertebrae could be scattered well out of alignment . . . [while] thelong bones usually display less disturbance.Brothwell suggests that the Jewbury burials with 'tumbledbones' are those of individuals who died in Lincoln, 76 miles away,and were transported to Jewbury for burial; the extended time involvedin funeral arrangements and travel resulting in decomposition andpartial disarticulation of the body. Boddington (1987) reports similarpatterns of disarticulation in many of the burials in the Anglo-Saxoncemetery at Raunds, Northamptonshire.Disarray of the vertebrae and ribs has been observed in radiographsof certain Egyptian mummies [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 9 OMITTED] (Fawcittet al. 1984; Brothwell 1987). In this case, the disarticulation is notthe result of natural decomposition and delayed burial, but is theresult of post-interment disturbance of a mummified body either by graverobbers or during transportation from tomb to museum.ConclusionThe cases described above provide parallels to findings at Sipan andSan Jose de Moro, and suggest that one of several mechanisms couldproduce the observed patterns of disarticulation. The Moche left nowritten accounts of their mortuary practices. While rare glimpses ofmortuary ritual appear in their art (Donnan & McClelland 1979), thearchaeological record provides the most detailed body of evidence -limited as it may be. Donnan (1995) estimates that less than 350 Mocheburials have been excavated and recorded by archaeologists, and thequality of information varies considerably. The recent findings at Sipanand San Jose de Moro underline the importance of careful field recordingand analysis of skeletal remains, for these data are critical to ourunderstanding of Moche funerary behaviour.Acknowledgements. I would like to thank archaeologists Walter Alva,Susana Meneses de Alva and Luis Chero for their friendship andcollegiality col��le��gi��al��i��ty?n.1. Shared power and authority vested among colleagues.2. Roman Catholic Church The doctrine that bishops collectively share collegiate power. during my many visits to the Lambayeque Valley. My researchwas made possible by funding from the National Geographic Society (HuacaRajada/Sipan Project funds), a Fulbright Lecturer/Researcher grant fromthe Council for the International Exchange of Scholars and apostdoctoral fellowship at the National Museum of Natural History,Smithsonian Institutions. I am grateful to Christopher Donnan for hisencouragement and assistance with my fieldwork in Peru, and to DianeDella-Loggia and Karen Ackoff of the National Museum of Natural History,Smithsonian Institution, for editorial assistance on an early draft ofthis paper and for illustration preparation. I thank Andrew Nelson andCarol Mackey for sharing their unpublished data from San Jose de Moro,and for steering me towards important bibliographic sources. Finally Iam grateful for the comments of anonymous reviewers.ReferencesALVA, W. 1988. Discovering the New World's richest unlootedtomb, National Geographic 174(4):510-49.1994. Sipan. Lima: Cerveceria Backus & Johnston.ALVA, W. & C.B. 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