Integrating students with moderate and severe disabilities into general education classes.

Integrating students with moderate and severe disabilities into general education classes. There rarely seems to be a shortage of recommendations about how toimprove our schools (Fullan, 1991). The real task is more complex: toselect recommendations that are both needed and efficacious ef��fi��ca��cious?adj.Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective.[From Latin effic , to initiatethe change, and to sustain its beneficial effects. When school reform isinvolved, the change process is lengthy and may take 5-10 years frominitiation to stable establishment (Fullan).The literature on educational change tells us that many factorsinfluence the levels and patterns of improvement outcomes. For example,if an innovation is initiated by someone who has experience with it,particularly the chief district administrator, then change is morelikely (Huberman & Miles, 1984; LaRocque & Coleman, 1989).Huberman and Miles found that when teachers received assistance inmastering the skills required to implement an innovation, they becamemore committed to the change as their effort and skill increased.Huberman and Miles also found that initial use of an innovationtypically is rough, and that smooth early use is "a bad sign"in terms of desirable outcomes (p. 273). Finally, Bredo and Bredo (1975)found that incremental or localized change, in contrast to systemwidechange, may help a school's overall progress towardinstitutionalizing the change for several reasons: Fewer conflicts arisewith a small-scale trial of the change, and professionals' autonomyis respected because those who are less involved can observe thepositive involvement of colleagues with a "wait and see"attitude (p. 464).Teachers, who characteristically are overloaded o��ver��load?tr.v. o��ver��load��ed, o��ver��load��ing, o��ver��loadsTo load too heavily.n.An excessive load.Adj. 1. to begin with, viewproposed change with skepticism (Lortie, 1975). Their initial perceptionof change is often in terms of a variety of concerns about the impact ofthe change on their work and its benefits for students (Hall & Hord,1987). As practitioners guided by an ethic of practicality,teachers' view toward change is similar to the notion of acost-benefit comparison: They weigh the impact that change will have ontheir time, energy, and routines against the benefits it holds for theirstudents (Doyle & Ponder, 1977-78). As Fullan (1991) noted, manyinnovations are adopted with no clear explanations to teachers of eithertheir benefits or implementation procedures. This fact, coupled with theprovision of inadequate resources to support implementation, oftenresults in teachers' experiencing more costs than rewards. Further,the initial weighing of costs and benefits occurs before teachers havehad a chance to gain experience with the change and to reach an accurateunderstanding of what it actually means for them.Ambivalence ambivalence(ămbĭv`ələns), coexistence of two opposing drives, desires, feelings, or emotions toward the same person, object, or goal. The ambivalent person may be unaware of either of the opposing wishes. about whether the change will be favorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. is nearlyalways experienced before the change is attempted. It is only by tryingsomething that we can really know if it works. The problem is compoundedbecause first attempts are frequently awkward, not providing a fair testof the idea. Support during initial trial is critical for gettingthrough the first stages, as is some sign of progress. (Fullan, 1991, p.129)Special education has evolved with a tangential tan��gen��tial? also tan��gen��taladj.1. Of, relating to, or moving along or in the direction of a tangent.2. Merely touching or slightly connected.3. association toschools in general, and has not been without its ills and recommendedremedies. The ill of being separate and its spillover spill��o��ver?n.1. The act or an instance of spilling over.2. An amount or quantity spilled over.3. A side effect arising from or as if from an unpredicted source: effects on thechildren it serves has received considerable attention (Gartner &Lipsky, 1987; Lytle, 1988; Oberti v. Clementon, 1993; Skrtic, 1991). Theremedy of integrating children with special needs into the mainstream ofschools while providing them with individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. supports is oneeducational reform made particularly complex because it forces atangential relationship between special and general education tointersect In a relational database, to match two files and produce a third file with records that are common in both. For example, intersecting an American file and a programmer file would yield American programmers. and become cooperative in nature (McLaughlin & Warren,1992). (We use the term integration to emphasize both the social andcurricular aspects of attendance in general education schools andclasses by students needing special education supports and services. Weuse the term full inclusion to refer to educating students withidentified disabilities in the school and classroom they would attend ifnot disabled via collaboration by general and special educators to bringsupports and services to the student [Rogers, 1993]).Several researchers have examined the change process involved inmoving special education students with moderate to severe disabilitiesinto general education alongside their peers (Cole & Meyer, 1991;Evans, Salisbury, Palombaro, Berryman, & Hollowood, 1992; Ferguson,Meyer, Jeanchild, Juniper juniper,any tree or shrub of the genus Juniperus, aromatic evergreens of the family Cupressaceae (cypress family), widely distributed over the north temperate zone. Many are valuable as a source of lumber and oil. , & Zingo, 1992; Giangreco, Dennis,Cloninger, Edelman, & Schattman, 1993; Kozleski & Jackson, 1993;Salisbury, Palombaro, & Hollowood, 1993; York, Vandercook,Macdonald, Heise-Neff, & Caughey, 1992).Collectively, these findings provide a stable foundation for theposition that such change can produce desirable results for children andschools, though they also lend support to the complex nature of suchchange.Most of the 19 kindergarten kindergarten[Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be through 9th-grade teachers that Giangrecoand his colleagues (1993) studied who had an integrated student in theirclasses began with negative initial feelings but later reported positive"transforming experiences" and benefits to all involved.Seventeen of the 19 teachers said their expectations and behavior towardthe included students had changed because of their willingness andaction "to become directly involved with the student withdisabilities" (p. 370). With assistance and support from specialeducation staff, these teachers gradually began making both physical andsocial contact with the student, learned how to include the student inclass activities, and developed a "sense of ownership" for thestudent. More than preparatory pre��par��a��to��ry?adj.1. Serving to make ready or prepare; introductory. See Synonyms at preliminary.2. Relating to or engaged in study or training that serves as preparation for advanced education: training, these direct experiences withthe included child were credited as being crucial to teachers'changes in attitudes, expectations, and behavior.Kozleski and Jackson's (1993) 3-year field study of Taylor, astudent with severe disabilities, delved into the change processinvolved at the district, school, and classroom levels for includingthis student in 3rd through 5th grade. At the district and schoollevels, Taylor's inclusion meant administrative and role changesdue to the shift from a self-contained, center-based model of specialeducation to one where children with special needs were placed in theirneighborhood school in general education classrooms with individualizedsupports. Teachers and administrators reported that the difficultieswere related less to Taylor's disabilities than to staff skills andattitudes, mechanisms for problem-solving, and the provision of supportsto classroom staff. All three general education teachers agreed thatmany out-of-class planning meetings should have been replaced withsupported assistance such as in-class observations of Taylor, teachercoaching, and direct modeling in the classroom (p. 169).Salisbury et al. (1993) studied the inclusion of 26 students withmild to severe disabilities in general education elementary classroomsin their neighborhood school over a 2.5-year period. Changes wereobserved in (a) policy that allowed more flexibility in staff roles andreduced class size for teachers with included students, (b) pedagogybased on collaboration and individualized curriculum adaptation, and (c)improvements in attitude toward students with disabilities. The tone ofclassroom teachers toward these changes shifted over time "fromresistance to cooperation to overt Public; open; manifest.The term overt is used in Criminal Law in reference to conduct that moves more directly toward the commission of an offense than do acts of planning and preparation that may ultimately lead to such conduct. OVERT. Open. support" (p. 82). In agreementwith Huberman and Miles's (1984) study of innovations in schools,Salisbury et al. found that "sustained progress occurred as staffexperienced success in meeting the needs of students with significantdisabilities, felt supported, and made connections between their valuesbase and instructional practices" (p. 83).In these studies, researchers reported initial resistance to thechanges involved in moving children with disabilities into generaleducation classrooms, followed by generally widespread approval of thereform as teachers gained supported experience with the change andencountered success. Teachers and classmates Classmates can refer to either: Classmates.com, a social networking website. Classmates (film), a 2006 Malayalam blockbuster directed by Lal Jose, starring Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indragith, Sunil, Jagathy, Kavya Madhavan, Balachandra Menon, ... voiced the power of theirdirect experience with the included child, while teaching staffidentified the critical nature of collaboration with each other todefine and provide support.The present study extended the examination of the role of experiencein altering teachers' attitudes about educational change effortsdesigned to integrate students with moderate and severe disabilitiesinto general education classes. The purpose of the study was to gatheradvice about integration from general and special education teachers andadministrators in five school districts where students with moderate orsevere disabilities had been recently integrated part time into generaleducation schools and classes. The intent was twofold: (a) to examineteachers' and administrators' judgments about the success ofintegration efforts in which they had been involved, and (b) to examinetheir perceptions of factors that had facilitated or hindered success.Implicit in Adj. 1. implicit in - in the nature of something though not readily apparent; "shortcomings inherent in our approach"; "an underlying meaning"underlying, inherent the latter purpose was an interest in examining generaleducation teachers' perceptions of factors that had reduced theirinitial resistance to the change. It was assumed that the criteria bywhich practitioners judge the success of integration efforts might bedifferent from those of an outside consultant or researcher. Therefore,the interest was not in determining whether integration had beenaccomplished "successfully" according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. recognized indicatorsof effective practice. Rather, the interest was in studyingparticipants' beliefs and attitudes about the success of their ownintegration efforts.METHODParticipants and SettingsParticipants were 53 teachers and administrators from five Virginiaschool districts that had undertaken a planned effort to increase theintegration of students with moderate or severe disabilities intogeneral education schools and classrooms. The initial change efforts inthese school districts had been promoted by special education directorswho, with the approval of their district superintendents, had appliedfor technical assistance from a statewide project. A total of 17 schooldistricts were involved with the project, which provided each schooldistrict with 3-4 days per month of onsite consultation. Projectconsultants facilitated systemwide planning efforts and also assisted upto three schools per district to plan and implement their integrationefforts. Although selecting study participants from school districtsthat had been involved with the project created a potential source ofbias in the data, it should be noted that these districts were verynearly the only school districts in the state that had systematicallyplanned and implemented integrated educational services for all theirstudents with moderate and severe disabilities.To examine possible effects of school district variables onperceptions of the integration process, we conducted interviews in fiveschool districts selected to provide a representative sample of the 17project districts, based on size, location, and degree of integration(see Table 1). The stated integration goals in all five school districtswere to provide special education services for all students withmoderate and severe disabilities within age-appropriate, generaleducation schools (not necessarily in each student's neighborhoodschool), and also to provide several daily opportunities for eachstudent to be involved in classes and other school activities with theirpeers without disabilities. All five districts had moved their studentswith moderate and severe disabilities from age-inappropriate or separateschools into local, age-appropriate, general education schools. However,much variation remained both within and across school districts in thenumbers and kinds of integrated classes and activities actuallyimplemented (Table 1).[TABULAR DATA OMITTED]We conducted interviews in the schools in these districts that hadreceived on-site technical assistance from the project for at least onesemester se��mes��ter?n.One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year.[German, from Latin (cursus) s . The sample of schools comprised three elementary schools,three junior high or middle schools, and four high schools. These 10schools had been involved with the project for from one to threesemesters. As shown in Table 1, the percentage of the school day forwhich individual students with moderate and severe disabilities wereintegrated into age-appropriate general classes and activities rangedfrom 0% to 100%, with a median of approximately 25%. In the elementaryschool elementary school:see school. in District D, students were integrated from approximatelyhalf-time to full-time into general classes. In elementary schools inDistricts A, B, C, and E, the majority of students were integrated intogeneral classes for 1-2 hr per day, primarily for "specials"(art, music, physical education, and library) and peer tutoring. In themiddle schools, the junior high, and the high schools, students wereintegrated into one or two class periods daily, typically vocational ornonacademic classes such as home economics, chorus, or physicaleducation.We interviewed a special education director from each of the fiveschool districts. In each of the 10 schools, we interviewed theprincipal or assistant principal, 1 or 2 special education teachers (12in all), and from 2 to 4 general education teachers (26 in all). Weselected general education teachers on the basis of their having beeninvolved in some capacity with the integration effort. Because of timeand scheduling constraints, we interviewed approximately 80% of thegeneral education teachers involved with integration. General educationteachers' involvement ranged from having a single student with amoderate or severe disability integrated into nonacademic classroomactivities to having an identified student integrated for the entireschool day (Table 1). Because the focus of the study was to gatheradvice from teachers and admiinistrators experienced in the integrationprocess, we did not interview teachers who had not been involved in thatprocess.Each participant was interviewed by one of the authors using asemi-standardized interview with primarily open-ended questions. Allfour authors conducted interviews, but the two authors who were projectconsultants did not interview in school districts where they hadprovided technical assistance (the other two authors were projectdirectors, and had not provided technical assistance to any projectschools). The interviews lasted from 30 to 90 min; most were conductedduring the school day. Written permission to tape record the interviewswas secured from participants in advance. Following background questionsabout professional experience and involvement with the integrationeffort, we asked the following questions:1. What is your general feeling about how integration is workinghere? 2. What makes you feel it has or has not been successful? 3. Whathas helped the most? 4. What have the biggest problems been? 5. Is thereanything about this school or the school system that has either helpedor hindered? 6. For integration to be successful, what do teachers needfrom central administration, from principals, and from other teachers?7. Have your feelings about integration changed? If so, what made youchange? 8. If another school district asked for advice aboutintegration, what would you tell them?Data AnalysisWe transcribed interviews verbatim ver��ba��tim?adj.Using exactly the same words; corresponding word for word: a verbatim report of the conversation.adv. , and each interviewer reviewedthem for accuracy. As this was primarily a descriptive analysis, wepurposefully pur��pose��ful?adj.1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician.2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. sought out recurring re��cur?intr.v. re��curred, re��cur��ring, re��curs1. To happen, come up, or show up again or repeatedly.2. To return to one's attention or memory.3. To return in thought or discourse. themes pertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to the two primaryinterests that had served as the impetus for the study: (a) On whatfactors did interviewees' judgments of successful integrationefforts hinge hingen.A jointed or flexible device that allows the turning or pivoting of a part, such as a door or lid, on a stationary frame.hingesee hinge joint. ("success" themes)? and (b) What factors wereperceived to have facilitated or hindered success ("advice"themes)?The first author devised a preliminary list of themes related to"success" and "advice" culled from all of theinterviews. Advice themes were taken from responses to the questionspecifically asking for advice to other school districts, as well asfrom any reports of factors that had been helpful or detrimental det��ri��men��tal?adj.Causing damage or harm; injurious.detri��men to theintegration effort. The other three authors then searched theirinterviews for these themes, and for any additional or contradictorythemes. An average of nine advice themes and three success themes perinterview were identified. To assess the reliability of the codingprocedure, the first author's coding of six randomly selectedinterviews conducted by the other authors was compared to that of theauthor who had conducted each of these six interviews. An average ofvirtually 100% agreement on the identification of relevant units, and87% agreement on the coding of those units, was achieved. The authorsthen revised the list of themes and subthemes, using inductive inductive1. eliciting a reaction within an organism.2.inductive heatinga form of radiofrequency hyperthermia that selectively heats muscle, blood and proteinaceous tissue, sparing fat and air-containing tissues. analysistechniques (Patton, 1990). The initial 50 themes were eventuallyorganized into 2 primary themes defining success and 15 themes ofadvice. For example, general education teachers' advice to theirpeers included a variety of references to the importance of teamwork,cooperation, working together with the special education teacher, andengaging in ongoing problem-solving. All such themes were ultimatelyincluded in the major theme "Problem-solve as a team."The ramifications ramificationsnpl → Auswirkungen plof possible bias in the data because of theauthors' involvement with the technical assistance project weremoderated in several ways. First, and most important, the purpose ofthis study was not to generate or test generalizable gen��er��al��ize?v. gen��er��al��ized, gen��er��al��iz��ing, gen��er��al��iz��esv.tr.1. a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law.b. To render indefinite or unspecific.2. educational changestrategies; this task has already been ably accomplished (e.g., Fullan,1991; Goodlad, 1984; Sarason, 1990). However, as we see school districtscontinue to undertake reform efforts in ways that are inconsistent withwhat we know about effective change strategies, we clearly need toincrease our understanding of why those strategies ought to be used.Thus, we also need to learn more about how teachers and principals whoimplement integration or other changes think and feel about them. Inaddition, the project was designed to maintain local ownership of thechange process; district representatives and teachers themselvesdetermined the exact nature, pace, and degree of change implemented.Many of the changes made were not specifically recommended or endorsedby the project, but were determined by local school district planningteams.The themes presented in the following section are based on modal Mode-oriented. A modal operation switches from one mode to another. Contrast with non-modal. 1. modal - (Of an interface) Having modes. Modeless interfaces are generally considered to be superior because the user does not have to remember which mode he is in.2. responses and perspectives revealed by interviewees. Where there weredistinctions among groups, or if any individual's responses clearlycontradicted the modal response, those distinctions are discussed. Allindented in��dent?1?v. in��dent��ed, in��dent��ing, in��dentsv.tr.1. To set (the first line of a paragraph, for example) in from the margin.2. a. material and material within quotation marks quotation marksNoun, plthe punctuation marks used to begin and end a quotation, either `` and '' or ` and 'quotation marksnpl → comillas fpl are direct quotesfrom the interviews. Teacher sources are identified by referring to theschool district (Districts A through E, as indicated on Table 1), theschool level, and the subject taught. Administrator sources areidentified by school district and role (i.e., special education directoror principal). Quotations were chosen based on their clarity andrepresentativeness, not on their uniqueness.RESULTSThere were two major themes defining success (benefits and costs) and15 themes of advice. Advice themes essentially comprised the elements ofsupport required from district administrators, building administrators,special education teachers, and general education teachers, and areorganized accordingly. The primary role-specific divisions in the advicegiven were in the direction in which those interviewed turned forsupport, with special education administrators and principals turning tosuperintendents, and teachers turning primarily to principals and toeach other. Because of space limitations and the centrality of theteacher's role to implementation of the change, the perspectives ofteachers will be emphasized over those of principals and districtadministrators.Criteria for Success: Benefits Outweigh out��weigh?tr.v. out��weighed, out��weigh��ing, out��weighs1. To weigh more than.2. To be more significant than; exceed in value or importance: The benefits outweigh the risks. CostsAll interviewees but one reported the integration effort in theirschools to have been successful. (The high school special educationteacher in District D was dissatisfied dis��sat��is��fied?adj.Feeling or exhibiting a lack of contentment or satisfaction.dis��satis��fied with the slow pace of the change,and believed the special education students could have been integratedmore frequently and more effectively.) When asked to describe thecriteria for success, interviewees in all roles related the manypositive benefits for students; general and special education teachersalso related the limited effect on their workload. Thus, teachers'judgments of success were based on weighing the costs in terms of theirtime and energy against the rewards in terms of benefits for students.This implicit cost-benefit analysis constituted the basis for theprimary advice offered by teachers to professional peers, as illustratedby the advice offered to other school districts by the elementary schoolspecial education teacher in District D:I'd tell them to do it. I think it's really beneficial andit's not as difficult as you might first anticipate it to be. Ithink you see the benefits right away in the children with disabilitiesand the children without disabilities.Perceived benefits for integrated students included increasedindependence and improved functional skills for students having moderatedisabilities, and increased alertness and interest in the environmentfor students having the most severe disabilities. However, socialbenefits, including acquiring age-appropriate behaviors and tastes,developing friendships, "being a part" of the school andclassroom community, and increased self-esteem, were emphasized. Thestudents without disabilities were perceived to have grown in theirself-esteem and in their acceptance of individual differences.Generalized benefits to the school and community also were noted:"It's made a good atmosphere for our whole school. Ourchildren are so much more aware of others, and I think it's madethem less self-centered. And it's made us teachers more aware,too," said one 3rd-grade teacher in District B.The assessment of costs was based on teachers' having receivednecessary and sufficient supports so that integration had not resultedin extraordinary workloads for them. The majority of general educationteachers were hesitant hes��i��tant?adj.Inclined or tending to hesitate.hesi��tant��ly adv. initially to integrate a student in theirclassroom, and had anticipated a worst-case scenario worst-case scenarion → Schlimmstfallszenario ntwherein where��in?adv.In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned?conj.1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live.2. they andthe integrated student would be left to fend for Verb 1. fend for - argue or speak in defense of; "She supported the motion to strike"defend, supportargue, reason - present reasons and arguments themselves. Because thesupports described later in this paper had been provided, and becauseteachers became, in the words of the middle school art teacher inDistrict D, "hooked" on the benefits for students, teachersreported that their fears were soon mitigated. Even the two teachers(the middle school art and high school economics teachers in District D)who said that integration had resulted in more work for them believedthat the benefits outweighed the costs.Advice for District AdministratorsSpecific advice from principals and teachers for districtadministrators was relatively scant scant?adj. scant��er, scant��est1. Barely sufficient: paid scant attention to the lecture.2. Falling short of a specific measure: a scant cup of sugar. and can be summarized as follows:Give us the go ahead, provide the resources we need, and then show usthat what we've done is appreciated. For instance, when asked whathad been required from central office, the high school principal inDistrict D replied: "Support. That's all they can give us.Some direction maybe, and support. We have to do it on this level."Advice from district administrators for their peers did not conflictwith this synopsis A summary; a brief statement, less than the whole.A synopsis is a condensation of something—for example, a synopsis of a trial record. , but indicated that providing direction and supportrequired more skill than was apparent on the surface.Give a "Green Light" to Do What's Best for AllStudents. Principals and teachers believed that their integrationefforts had been facilitated by district administrators who had clearlycommunicated a general goal or mission for the school district thatencompassed integration as a way to achieve positive outcomes forstudents with disabilities. Principals and teachers were adamant in notwanting a mandate or specific implementation guidelines guidelines,n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. , which wereperceived as anathema anathema(ənă`thĭmə)[Gr.,=something set up; dedicated to a divinity as a votive offering], term that came to denote something devoted to a divinity for destruction. In the Bible, the term is herem. to the flexibility needed to addressstudents' individual needs. (The 4th-grade teacher in District Eadvised district administrators: "Tell them to get rid of thecurriculums and let us teach what we want so we can include everybody init.") The teachers and principals interviewed believed the"opportunity" or "go ahead" to undertake schoolintegration efforts was best provided by a district mission statement tothe effect that a quality education should be provided for all students.The middle school principal in District C reported finding theadministrative support needed for the school's integration effortsin such a mission statement: "The word `all' is the keycomponent.... So we do have the green light to do whatever iseducational improvement - to provide the very best opportunities foreach student."Direct Without Dictating. The district administrators interviewed hadwanted to promote integration and not just give schools a "greenlight." However, they also realized the importance of participatoryplanning Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm which emphasises involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning. ArticleOriginsIn the UN Habitat document Building Bridges Through Participatory Planning and decision making: "Do not plan it and then present itto the people implementing it," warned the special educationadministrator in District D. Like the ther four district administrators,this administrator advised promoting integration by focusing on itsbenefits for students.I had to try to convince them [teachers] that what we wanted to dowas a good program for children. And if I didn't get caught up inwhat I philosophically believed in or what legally was required, but[stressed that] it was good for children, I found that I could convincethem that it was worth a try.Many general education teachers who reported feeling"hesitant" initially said they had later decided to "giveit a try," based precisely on the selling point selling pointn.An aspect of a product or service that is stressed in advertising or marketing.Noun 1. selling point - a characteristic of something that is up for sale that makes it attractive to potential customers of potentialbenefits for students. As noted previously, those benefits became thebasis on which they advised other teachers to get involved withintegration.Once integration was adopted at the school level, districtadministrators then found themselves in the difficult position ofrecognizing the need for buildings to "do it at their level"and yet wanting to provide support and leadership for effectiveimplementation. The special education administrator in District Ddescribed the conflict that had arisen despite efforts to provide neededinformation without pushing integration onto teachers. Thisadministrator had organized a planning meeting for teachers in schoolswhere students with moderate and severe disabilities already wereintegrated for significant portions of the day. Just as the teachers andprincipals interviewed advised, the meeting had been designed as a forumfor district administrators to provide guidance and information whilealso engaging teachers in participatory planning and indicating theywould be trusted to implement the change toward greater integration.Even so, the meeting resulted in misunderstanding and confrontation. Theadministrator reflected on this during the interview:People were frustrated frus��trate?tr.v. frus��trat��ed, frus��trat��ing, frus��trates1. a. To prevent from accomplishing a purpose or fulfilling a desire; thwart: that I was telling them what they had to do,and I made it very clear, I was not telling them how the program wouldoperate. But that was also frustrating frus��trate?tr.v. frus��trat��ed, frus��trat��ing, frus��trates1. a. To prevent from accomplishing a purpose or fulfilling a desire; thwart: , because they felt ... they werejust told: "This is the program," but they were given nodirection. And we [did that because we] want the program to be what isneeded for those students in that school.... So it's a real fineline, in staying out completely but getting involved too much.Advice for PrincipalsAdvice regarding administrative support focused primarily onprincipals. Although the principals and teachers interviewed realizedthat the initial responsibility for procuring Procuring, in general, is the act of acquiring goods or services, usually by contract. It may refer to: Procurement, a business process to acquire goods or services. Procuring, the act of aiding a prostitute in the arrangement of a sex act with a customer. resources lay withdistrict administrators, responsibility for getting access to resources,including staff, materials, and inservice training and for handlinglogistics such as scheduling and transportation, was seen to lie withbuilding administrators."Set a Positive Tone." The principal "sets thetone" in the building, and his or her positive attitude toward theintegration effort, and toward the students with disabilitiesthemselves, was seen as imperative to success. Interviewees from eachschool noted that a collaborative, problem-solving orientation was oneaspect of the tone established by supportive principals. Phrases such as"This is a very team-oriented school" (District E/middleschool/reading) appeared in interviews from each school.For teachers, a facilitative school climate also encompassed respectfor teachers as professionals. The assistant principal of the elementaryschool in District D summarized the need to treat teachers likeprofessionals, especially when asking them to undertake the risksinherent in implementing change:I think ... they know that they have support, and also they are givena lot of discretion... They feel like they're trusted, and thatthey are treated as professionals. So therefore, they're morewilling to take on new ideas and new challenges more so than a teacherwho... may be told everything to do and when to do it. I don'tthink that type of teacher would be so willing to want to change.Start with Teacher Volunteers. A primary recommendation foroperationalizing this respect for teacher autonomy was to begin withteacher volunteers - those who are "interested and willing,"perhaps because they have had previous contact with the students, orbecause they are "open-minded," "flexible," and"willing to take risks." The high school English teacher inDistrict E described the importance of this approach: "[The specialeducation staff] contacted people who were interested to begin with ....If they were to have pushed on us, I think the pushing would havecreated resistance."Our interviewees believed that the best way to encourage moreteachers to get involved was by providing information and example, andwere confident that using volunteers initially would ultimately yieldmaximum results as "teachers with experience encourage others"(District D/high school/drama). The elementary school principal inDistrict B explained: "Teachers here have seen the successes andwant to be part of it.... Everybody looks on and says `I'd love tobe able to ... have those successes.'" This was anotherexample of the positive outcomes for students being viewed as a powerfulforce for promoting further integration."Involve Everyone in Preparation and Planning." Virtuallyevery interviewee recommended taking a "team approach" toplanning by getting input from everyone involved, including parents,teachers, and related service providers, regarding how and when tointegrate students. Team planning was valued not only because itresulted in a smoother and more efficient change, but because itdemonstrated respect for teachers' professionalism by seeking theirrecommendations and opinions. Accordingly, the principal of theelementary school in District B advised other principals to "getinformation yourself and share ideas with staff, ask how this can workin our school," rather than informing staff "we're goingto do this."Maintaining good communication among everyone involved was alsoviewed as critical to success, although no specific strategies for doingso were provided.Provide Information, Orientation, and Training. Over two thirds ofour interviewees spontaneously mentioned the value of principals'bringing in new and relevant information from a variety of sources. Theyrecommended the provision of inservice workshops, on-site consultants,visits to integrated schools, and opportunities to talk with othereducators and parents who have implemented integrated services In computer networking, IntServ or integrated services is an architecture that specifies the elements to guarantee quality of service (QoS) on networks. IntServ can for example be used to allow video and sound to reach the receiver without interruption. .According to teacher interviewees, the purpose of initialinformational and training activities should be to address the personaland professional attitudes and fears that they believed to be thegreatest initial barriers to integration. The high school home economicsteacher in District D expressed her initial concerns, which were verytypical, this way: "For awhile a��while?adv.For a short time.Usage Note: Awhile, an adverb, is never preceded by a preposition such as for, but the two-word form a while may be preceded by a preposition. I fought it, because I keptthinking: What can I actually give, how can they learn from me, theywon't be able to keep up, will I hamper my other students'progress?" Initial resistance was also attributed to fears aboutpersons with disabilities in general. This perception was expressed bythe 4th-grade teacher in District E: "[It's] fear of theunknown.... You're afraid they might hurt you or you might hurtthem. [It's a] lack of education, not knowing what to expect."General education teachers emphasized the importance of professionaldevelopment activities in reducing these apprehensions, correctinginaccurate assumptions, and hence changing attitudes and garneringsupport for the effort. Early on, general education teachers wanted toknow what the purpose of attending general classes would be for studentswith disabilities, who presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. could not complete typical classroomobjectives. They wanted to know what would be expected of them as thatstudent's teacher, and what support mechanisms would be provided tothem and to the student. Once a particular student was attending theirclass, classroom teachers wanted more specific information aboutstrategies to include that student in classroom activities. Thepreference was for this information to come from the special educationteacher and other involved teachers via informal team meetings andpersonal exchanges, rather than from formal inservice training sessions.Thus, principals needed to recognize special education teachers'new responsibilities and provide time to fulfill them.Provide Resources and Handle the Logistics. Though teachers describedpersonal and professional fears as the greatest initial barriers tointegration, they said that the primary implementation barriers they hadencountered were logistical lo��gis��tic? also lo��gis��ti��caladj.1. Of or relating to symbolic logic.2. Of or relating to logistics.[Medieval Latin logisticus, of calculation and environmental. Teachers advised that itis important for principals to facilitate and support integrationefforts by making sure the building is accessible, getting adequateresources (staff, equipment, and materials), and handling scheduling ina timely fashion. These logistical and material supports were viewed asimportant in a practical sense and also important strategically as a wayto signify sig��ni��fy?v. sig��ni��fied, sig��ni��fy��ing, sig��ni��fiesv.tr.1. To denote; mean.2. To make known, as with a sign or word: signify one's intent. that integration is valued. Although administratorsemphasized the need to "sell it" and to provide "goodpublic relations public relations,activities and policies used to create public interest in a person, idea, product, institution, or business establishment. By its nature, public relations is devoted to serving particular interests by presenting them to the public in the most " for integration or any change, teachers werecognizant cog��ni��zant?adj.Fully informed; conscious. See Synonyms at aware.[From cognizance.]Adj. 1. of the distinction between just talking about it and followingthrough. The message to administrators was clear: If you want successfulintegration, make it a priority and follow up on it - do not just paylip service lip servicen.Verbal expression of agreement or allegiance, unsupported by real conviction or action; hypocritical respect: to the theory. Superficial support may help get thingsstarted, but ongoing support requires following through on action plans.Pace: "Start Small and Build." Advice regarding the pace ofchange was a strong theme. The nearly unanimous advice in this regardwas to start small and build." Slowly paced change - in terms ofthe amount of time students with disabilities spent in general education- was advised as one way to respect teacher's initial fears andperceptions. "Take it one step at a time. Give yourself some timeto get used to it and for the [general education teachers] to get usedto it," advised the elementary special education teacher inDistrict B.Give Teachers "The Freedom to Do It. " Virtually everyteacher emphasized that respect for their professional autonomy professional autonomy,n the right and privilege provided by a governmental entity to a class of professionals, and to each qualified licensed caregiver within that profession, to provide services independent of supervision. wasimportant both to the initiation and implementation of integrationefforts. Teachers explained they did not mind having to get permissionfrom an administrator to try something new or different, but once giventhat okay, they wanted to have the professional autonomy to makedecisions about implementation. "It needed to be understood whatthey expected of us and what they wanted us to do, and then let us havethe freedom to do that," noted the elementary special educationteacher in District B. In District E, one elementary special educationteacher said of the principal:She has been supportive, yet she's left us alone to work thingsthrough.... I think she's treated us like ... professionals and ...if we needed something or we wanted to talk with her about something,her door was open ... but as far as running the day-to-day type stuff...she says "This is what's expected" in the beginning andthen she has left us to do that.Teachers in 4 of the 10 schools volunteered that even though theywanted to work out certain aspects of the change for themselves, theydid not want their efforts to go unnoticed. Recognition for theirefforts, and "pats on the back" from both building and centraloffice administrators were highly valued by these teachers.Advice for Special Education TeachersThe general education teachers interviewed based their positiveevaluation of the integration effort on the fact that it had resulted inpositive outcomes for students but had not significantly increased theirworkloads. One reason integration had not resulted in more work forgeneral education teachers was that their special education counterpartshad provided effective supports, including both interpersonal in��ter��per��son��al?adj.1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills.2. andtask-related supports.Interpersonal Supports. General education teachers stressed theimportance of the special education teacher's manner andpersonality in determining their satisfaction with the supports providedby him or her. Over one third of the interviewees mentioned theimportance of the special educator's personality or affect inensuring the success of the integration effort. "Good rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. withothers," "enthusiasm," "a positive attitude,"and being "flexible," "low key, [and]nonthreatening," were among the recurring descriptors of specialeducation teachers' facilitating interpersonal qualities.Task-Related Supports. The first task-related support specialeducation teachers were advised to provide for receiving teachers waspreparatory information about integrated students' abilities,needs, and goals. "Let them know about their handicaps-things theymight do well and things that they might have a problem with,"recommended the middle school art teacher in District E.Mutual planning and cooperation were viewed as essential to thedesign of ongoing supports. Special education teachers were advised toget input from general education teachers about where and when tointegrate the student, when an extra staff person is needed, and whenassistance is required in adapting materials or activities. None of thegeneral education teachers specifically advised that special educationstaff always accompany the integrated student into the generalclassroom. Instead, they urged special education staff to be present ifthe general education teacher felt it was necessary. Although at leasthalf of the general education teachers interviewed were taking much orall of the responsibility for both the planning and the implementationof integrated classroom activities, the special education teachers werestill expected to coordinate the process and to be accessible andwilling to answer questions. The general and special education teachersinterviewed stressed the need for "flexible" supports, whichin most cases meant a decrease in the level of support over time.Advice for General Education Teachers"Have an Open Mind." Although classroom teachers reportedthat their own initial fears about integration had focused on questionsabout how they would teach the students with disabilities, the dominanttheme in the advice for their professional peers emphasized changingattitudes and beliefs. For example, the reading teacher at the middleschool in District E urged other teachers to "throw all yourhesitation, anxieties, and predrawn conclusions out the window [and]give the kids a chance." The high school physical education teacherin District A advised:Well, I just, I would go in with an open mind, don't beclosed-minded.... I think what's on What's On (Traditional Chinese: 熒幕八爪娛) is a weekly half-hour TV series that airs on Fairchild Television. FormatOriginally started in 1996, the show is currently the longest-running program in Fairchild Television history. every teacher's mind [is]the fact that, oh no, this is double the workload and double theproblems that you might have. And I think the best thing they can do iswait, and talk it over and see the situation, and at least try.There's always modifications you can make if something is notworking out.General education teachers who initially had been hesitant to getinvolved (22 of the 26) judged that their original fears andexpectations were based on inaccurate preconceptions about theintegrated student's needs and abilities. By getting to know thestudents with disabilities on an individual basis, they had gained bothknowledge of the student's unique abilities and a new perspectiveon disabilities in general. "I guess we just really had neverthought about them being `normal.' They really are," explainedthe junior high math teacher in District C. These general educationteachers' attitudes toward integration also had been changed byfinding that it was personally and professionally rewarding to work withthe integrated students, a sentiment expressed in these words by thehigh school physical education teacher in District A: "These kidsseem to appreciate you a lot more ... and that's a little pat onthe back for the teacher." Such rewards had generated a commitmentto integration in these teachers such that several, including the highschool drama teacher in District D, said that the only"problem" with integration in their schools was"there's not enough of it."Problem-Solve as a Team. Regarding the "how to" ofimplementing integrated classes, the primary advice offered to generaleducation teachers was to "work as a team" and take a"problem-solving" approach. Although only the elementaryschool in District D had implemented formal, collaborativestudent-centered planning teams, few teachers mentioned wanting moretime to plan together. It is not clear whether this was becauseintensive planning was not required to make the sorts of instructionaladaptations being used or because interviewees perceived such a requestto be nonfeasible, but no doubt both factors came into play.Nonetheless, teachers emphasized the need for collaborative values andorientations and advised others to cooperate, develop good communicationbetween special and general education teachers, and ask a lot ofquestions. The middle school reading teacher in District E summed upthis theme as follows: "Work as a team, do a lot of brainstorming... talk things through ... and then experiment."Help the Student to Belong. The majority of general educationteachers advised that part of their role in ensuring successfulintegration was to help the integrated student feel he or she belongedto the school community and was a member of the class. Teachers proudlymentioned things they had done to that end, such as sending classnewsletters home, including the student in the class picture and indaily roll call, putting the student's work on the bulletin board,and making sure other students in the class knew how to interact withhim or her.General education teachers stressed the primacy of their role infostering positive relationships among the students with and withoutdisabilities, and noted that the nondisabled students had taken theircue about how to interact from the teacher. For example, the high schoolhome economics teacher in District D said: "By my accepting themand ... talking to Noun 1. talking to - a lengthy rebuke; "a good lecture was my father's idea of discipline"; "the teacher gave him a talking to"lecture, speechrebuke, reprehension, reprimand, reproof, reproval - an act or expression of criticism and censure; "he had to them just like the other students, and not makingthem different, the other kids will accept them like I did."DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONThis commonsensical com��mon��sense?adj.Having or exhibiting native good judgment: "commonsense scholarship on the foibles and oversights of a genius"Times Literary Supplement. , practical advice provides insight into the waysadministrators and teachers view reform efforts designed to integratestudents with moderate and severe disabilities into general education.The practicality ethic that influences teachers' orientation towardchange proposals (Doyle & Ponder, 1977-78) was much in evidence inthe initial "resistance" expressed by the general educationteachers interviewed. Already wary of reforms and overloaded with work,general education teachers' initial balancing of the anticipatedhigh costs of integration against its uncertain benefits createdhesitation or resistance. Following their implementation experiences,teachers reevaluated the balance between the costs of teacher time andenergy as compared to the benefits for students, and judged theintegration effort successful.This advice also generally is consistent with the existing literatureon implementing educational change (e.g., Fullan, 1991; Sarason, 1990;Taylor, 1982). However, because it is expressed in terms ofpractitioners' perspectives and orientations, it can assist us tobetter understand why effective strategies work. The findings regardingthe process by which the initial resistance of general educationteachers toward integration was overcome have several implications forthose who wish either to initiate the first steps toward integratedspecial education, or to ensure that incomplete change such as thataccomplished by these 10 schools will be enlarged and sustained. Wediscuss three implications: (a) leadership in setting goals andproviding the resources to achieve them, (b) gradual or incrementalintroduction of change, and (c) participatory planning and decisionmaking.Top-Down Leadership and Bottom-UpImplementation: A Balancing Act forAdministratorsOne challenge to the change process lies in the tension between theleadership and support functions of administrators - especially districtadministrators - wishing to promote school integration or other reforms.Despite the perceptions of these teachers and principals that districtadministrators had a limited role in their school's integrationefforts, these district administrators had not simply given a"green light" to the change, but had procured technicalassistance and had engaged in many months of advanced planning andpreparation. Each of the district administrators interviewed spoke ofthe challenge of providing direction and assistance while at the sametime ensuring participatory planning, site-based decision making, andteacher autonomy. The use of methods consistent with Purkey andSmith's (1985) recommendation that school reform efforts be guidedby top-down leadership while allowing the teachers and principals whoultimately must execute the change to engage in bottom-up planning andimplementation, had resulted in reducing some of the initial resistanceto the change at the school level.Fullan (1991) recommends that "change should be a negotiatedprocess," wherein administrators create incentives and theconditions for change, but schools are given the responsibility andflexibility to implement them (p. 211). Administrators must realize,however, that simply giving teachers the freedom to execute innovationsas they choose does not necessarily result in effective implementation;continued support and technical assistance must be provided.Incremental Introduction of the ChangeA second important implication is that if general education teachersare to become committed to the change, they need to gain anunderstanding of the purpose of integration. The anxiety that generaleducation teachers may feel about the prospect of integrating a studentwith intensive needs relates to teachers' typical way of measuringtheir effectiveness and finding rewards. Teachers achieve their rewardsby "reaching" individual students, and they rely largely ontheir own powers of observation to determine their effectiveness(Lortie, 1975). When the general education teachers interviewedinitially encountered students with moderate and severe disabilities,they did not know how to determine what the students could do or learntherefore, these teachers did not understand what the benefits ofintegration would be. Over time, as they got to know the integratedstudents, teachers became able to perceive the integrated students'progress. Thus, some resistance was broken down by the development of astudent-teacher relationship. This process was facilitated by theself-selection of general education teachers who had an "openmind," and by special education teachers who provided practicalinformation about integrated students' abilities and learninggoals.The process of educators' undergoing a "transformingexperience" has been reported elsewhere (Giangreco et al., 1993)and was reinforced in these interviews. One implication of this processmay be, as Giangreco and others have suggested, that initialprofessional development activities should emphasize person-to-personsharing of those experiences, rather than inservice training in specifictechniques for implementation. Teachers are more likely to believe theirpeers' judgments of the worth of an innovation than those of anadministrator or outside consultant (Huberman & Miles, 1984). In ourinterviewees' terms, "start small and build" to createopportunities for teachers to see trusted colleagues having success withthe change.Creating a Collaborative CultureAnother source of resistance to integration stems from the fact thatteachers work under conditions described by Goodlad (1984) as"autonomous isolation" (p. 186). That is, they are used toworking and making many decisions alone, with few links to otherteachers. Therefore, teachers assume that any change will have to beaccomplished independently, resulting in "double the workload"for them. However, when these general education teachers realized thatthey had input into determining the pace and degree of integration, andalso discovered the rewards of cooperative interaction with supportive,enthusiastic special education teachers, the resistance that stemmedfrom fears about integration's effect on their workload werequelled quell?tr.v. quelled, quell��ing, quells1. To put down forcibly; suppress: Police quelled the riot.2. . Even though the majority of general education teachers in theseschools were not engaged in the formal consultation or collaborativeteaching with special educators that probably is necessary for fullsocial and academic inclusion of students with intensive needs, theywere engaging in enough collaborative activity to have achieved a sensethat they were not working alone, that there was someone to turn to forhelp, and that what they were doing was valued and appreciated. Otherswho study educational reform Fullan, 1991; Sarason, 1990) have alsoconcluded that real educational change occurs as a function of committedpeople and shared decision making. Fullan (1991) maintained that thelevel and degree of successful educational change relates to the extentto which teachers interact with one another. Change is a process thatrequires teachers to reach new understandings about their work, itspurpose, how to accomplish it, and how their work connects withothers'.Thus, a third implication for promoters of change is to focus changestrategies on people - their fears and their needs for their opinions tobe respected and their work valued - and on building a collaborativeculture in the school and assisting teachers to develop the skillsrequired for collaborative service delivery. Our interviewees translatedFullan's (1991) comment that change is a step-by-step process ofconstructing a new shared reality as: "Go in with an openmind," "work together," and "talk things over."LimitationsThe perspectives of these interviewees may not generalize generalize/gen��er��al��ize/ (-iz)1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic.2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. to schooldistricts at all stages in the change process, or to schools that havenot received the technical assistance provided to these schools.However, the consistency across school districts, schools, andindividuals with regard to the general thrust of the advice offeredsuggests certain perspectives toward change in general and integrationin particular that may be shared by others who fill similar roles andare undertaking similar reforms.One limitation of this advice is that it emphasizes achieving arather modest degree of integration, and does little to increase ourunderstanding of the process of making instructional modifications anddesigning individualized supports for integrated students. However,because 73% of students with mental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. nationally are still inseparate classes and schools (U.S. Department of Education, 1992), manyschool districts are at the stage of seeking greater physical and socialintegration and are not yet aiming for the academic or instructionalintegration required for full inclusion. As many school districtscontinue to attempt to make changes without using sound changestrategies, we clearly need to better disseminate dis��sem��i��nate?v. dis��sem��i��nat��ed, dis��sem��i��nat��ing, dis��sem��i��natesv.tr.1. To scatter widely, as in sowing seed.2. such strategies.Further, we must recognize that regardless of how modest the changesthat occurred in these school districts might appear to others, theywere experienced as significant by these interviewees. Understandingeducational change requires understanding how it feels to implementers.Because of the authors' roles in providing technical assistanceto the school districts involved in this study, the interview dataregarding the effectiveness of that technical assistance have not beenused. Although it is not certain how interviewees' knowledge ofthat involvement influenced their responses, it was evident that theydid not succeed in saying only what the researchers wanted to hear. Forexample, we had hoped that more teachers would say integration didrequire extra work but was worth the effort, because such a responsewould indicate that a great deal of change had occurred. Instead, allbut two general education teachers reported that it had not requiredmuch additional work, because significant curricular modifications werenot being made. With regard to the influence of having receivedtechnical assistance on interviewees' attitudes about integration,we would concur CONCUR - ["CONCUR, A Language for Continuous Concurrent Processes", R.M. Salter et al, Comp Langs 5(3):163-189 (1981)]. with Fullan (1991) and others who have studiededucational change: The provision of such assistance is a necessarycondition for the implementation of a complex change such asintegration.Resistance Is NaturalGeneral education teachers faced for the first time with the prospectof integrating a student having a moderate or severe disability intotheir classrooms will naturally respond based on their existingexpectations about schools, classrooms, students, and teaching. It isclear that if the educators who were the original proponents ofintegration in these 10 schools where we interviewed had been daunted daunt?tr.v. daunt��ed, daunt��ing, dauntsTo abate the courage of; discourage. See Synonyms at dismay.[Middle English daunten, from Old French danter, from Latin bythe initial resistance, these efforts, later perceived as positive bythe educators involved, would never have transpired. Resistance is bydefinition a response to an impending im��pend?intr.v. im��pend��ed, im��pend��ing, im��pends1. To be about to occur: Her retirement is impending.2. change that will have a personalimpact; it would not arise without change efforts (Karp, 1984). Theinitial resistance that stems from natural fears and confusion about howchange will affect one's work should be viewed as a natural part ofthe change process, rather than as an indication that the change will beimpossible to accomplish.Promoters of change should also remember that the resistance felt bythose who will implement a proposed change is exacerbated when thecentral role they must play in the change process is not acknowledged.School integration efforts must address practitioners' fearsthrough initial collegial col��le��gi��al?adj.1. a. Characterized by or having power and authority vested equally among colleagues: "He . . . exchanges focused on personal reflection.These change efforts must also continue to support the refinement andexpansion of integrated learning activities through the development of acollaborative ethos e��thos?n.The disposition, character, or fundamental values peculiar to a specific person, people, culture, or movement: "They cultivated a subversive alternative ethos"Anthony Burgess. and practice. These collegial exchanges and supportsystems will best serve the needs of both supporters and implementers -students and teachers alike.REFERENCESBredo, A. E., & Bredo, E. R. (1975). Effects of environment andstructure on the process of innovation. In J. W. Baldridge & R. E.Deal (Eds.), Managing change in educational organizations (pp. 449-467).Berkeley, CA: McCutchan. Cole, D. A., & Meyer, L. H. (1991). 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Exceptional Children, 58,244-258.ABOUT THE AUTHORSRACHEL E. JANNEY, Visiting Professor, School of Education, College ofWilliam and Mary Noun 1. William and Mary - joint monarchs of England; William III and Mary II , Williamsburg, Virginia. MARTHA E. SNELL Snell, George 1903-1996.American geneticist. He shared a 1980 Nobel Prize for discoveries concerning cell structure that enhanced understanding of the immunological system, resulting in higher success rates in organ transplantation. (CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. #383),Professor, Curriculum, Instruction and Special Education, University ofVirginia, Charlottesville. MARY K. BEERS (CEC #271), Teacher, ChesapeakeCity Schools, Chesapeake, Virginia Chesapeake is an independent city located in the South Hampton Roads region of eastern Virginia in the United States. One of the Seven Cities of Hampton Roads, Chesapeake was formed in 1963 by a political consolidation of the City of South Norfolk with the former Norfolk County, . MARIA RAYNES, Teacher, AugustaCounty Schools, Fishersville, Virginia Fishersville is a census-designated place (CDP) in Augusta County, Virginia, United States. The population was 4,998 at the 2000 census. GeographyFishersville is located at (38.098737, -78. .This project was supported in part by the U.S. Department ofEducation Cooperative Agreement GOO87C360-88. The content and opinionsexpressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy ofthe sponsor, and no official endorsement should be inferred.Manuscript received January 1993; revision accepted July 1994.