Initial Upper Palaeolithic in south-central Turkey and its regional context: a preliminary report.

Initial Upper Palaeolithic in south-central Turkey and its regional context: a preliminary report. Introduction The earliest Upper Palaeolithic industries of southwest Asia Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. The term Western Asia is sometimes used in writings about the archeology and the late prehistory of the region, and in the United States subregion havebeen documented in a relatively small number of localities widelyscattered throughout the eastern Mediterranean. These assemblages sharea number of features, including a distinctive approach to blademanufacture that combines elements normally considered typical of bothMiddle and Upper Palaeolithic technologies. Two sites located in theHatay region of south-central Turkey, Ucagizli cave and Kanal, containsubstantial early Upper Palaeolithic deposits. Technologically, thematerials from these two sites resemble the 'initial' UpperPalaeolithic of the Levantine Le��vant?1?The countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean Sea from Turkey to Egypt.Le area as well as the Bohunician of centralEurope Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. In addition, Northern, Southern and Southeastern Europe may variously delimit or overlap into Central Europe. . Ucagizli cave has also provided two AMS AMS - Andrew Message System radiocarbon dates,adding to the very small number of absolute dates available forcomparable assemblages in the region. The initial Upper Palaeolithic in the Near East The early Upper Palaeolithic in the Near East has long attractedthe interest of palaeoanthropologists and Palaeolithic archaeologists.Because it is the principal land route between Africa and Eurasia, theNear East plays a key role in many scenarios for the origins and spreadof both modern humans and the suite of behavioural characteristics whichconstitute the Upper Palaeolithic. The few radiometric dates currentlyavailable further suggest that some of the oldest typologically UpperPalaeolithic industries in the world come from the Levantine area.Moreover, some technological characteristics of the earliest UpperPalaeolithic in the Near East are strongly reminiscent of the Levalloismethod, more commonly associated with the Mousterian, thus raising thepossibility that these assemblages document an in situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. evolutionarytransition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic. The most ancient Near Eastern Upper Palaeolithic has gone byseveral different names. based on early discoveries in the Jordan valley Jordan Valley may refer to: Jordan Valley in the Middle East. Jordan Valley in New Kowloon, Hong Kong, near Ngau Tau Kok. Jordan Valley, Oregon in the United States. and elsewhere, Neuville (1934) and Garrod (1951; 1957) used the termsUP1 and Emiran (respectively) to refer to the first stage of the UpperPalaeolithic in the Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. . The mixture of features from MiddlePalaeolithic Levallois and Upper Palaeolithic blade technologies laterled some investigators to refer to these assemblages as'transitional' (e.g. Azoury 1986). This term has beenabandoned, largely because it presumes a phylogenetic phy��lo��ge��net��icadj.1. Of or relating to phylogeny or phylogenetics.2. Relating to or based on evolutionary development or history. relationshipbetween Mousterian and Upper Palaeolithic based on a simple combinationof technological traits. The term 'initial' Upper Palaeolithic(IUP IUP Indiana University of PennsylvaniaIUP Intended Use PlanIUP Intrauterine PregnancyIUP Institut Universitaire Professionalis�� (French: University Institute of Professional Education)IUP Intrauterine Pressure ) seems the most neutral and appropriate. Sites yielding initial Upper Palaeolithic assemblages occurthroughout the eastern Mediterranean. The southernmost IUP locality, andthe best documented to date, is the open-air site of Boker Tachtit inthe Negev desert Noun 1. Negev Desert - a desert in southern IsraelNegevIsrael, State of Israel, Yisrael, Zion, Sion - Jewish republic in southwestern Asia at eastern end of Mediterranean; formerly part of Palestine . Extensive refitting of artefacts and meticuloustechnological studies reveal what the excavator ex��ca��va��torn.An instrument, such as a sharp spoon or curette, used in scraping out pathological tissue.excavator (eks´k believes to be a smoothtransition between a laminar laminar/lam��i��nar/ (lam��i-nar)1. pertaining to a lamina or laminae.2. laminated.3. of, pertaining to, or being a streamlined, smooth fluid flow. but essentially Middle Palaeolithicapproach to blank production (in layer 1) to a fully-developed, UpperPalaeolithic-type system for prismatic blade In archaeology, a prismatic blade is a long, narrow, specialized lithic flake with parallel margins. Prismatic blades are removed from polyhedral blade cores through pressure reduction. This process results in a very standardized finished tool and waste assemblage. manufacture (in layer 4)(Marks 1983a; 1993; Volkman 1983). Farther north, in the area of Beirut,Lebanon, lies the deeply stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. site of Ksar Akil, the key UpperPalaeolithic sequence for the Levantine area. Layers 25-21 (stage 1) atKsar Akil (Azoury 1986; Bergman 1988; Ohnuma 1988; Ohnuma & Bergman1990) have yielded the largest initial Upper Palaeolithic assemblagesknown. Similar materials were recovered from the nearby sites ofAntelias shelter (layers V-VII) (Copeland 1970) and Abu Halka (IV, e-f)(Azoury 1986; Copeland & Wescomb 1965). A series of open-air sitesin Lebanon have yielded assemblages, termed 'Meyroubian',which combine Middle and Upper Palaeolithic features (Copeland &Wescomb 1965). The stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat contexts of the 'Meyroubian'collections are ambiguous, however, and it is not clear what exactlythey represent (Copeland & Wescombe 1965; Schyle 1992). Even farthernorth is Umm el Tlel (El Kowm) in Syria. Here, levels II base, IIIa andIIIb yield assemblages termed 'Paleolithique intermediaire',for their stratigraphic position as well as for the combination ofMousterian and Upper Palaeolithic features. Among other things, the'Paleolithique intermediaire' levels contain evidence of bothLevallois and prismatic blade manufacture (Boeda & Muhesen 1993). The initial Upper Palaeolithic industries of southwest Asia shareat least one important characteristic, namely forms of blade productiontechnology which appear to combine elements of both Levallois andprismatic pris��mat��ic? also pris��mat��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, resembling, or being a prism.2. Formed by refraction of light through a prism. Used of a spectrum of light.3. Brilliantly colored; iridescent. methods. Although blade blanks predominate among retouchedtools, a great many of the blades have faceted platforms. Someassemblages (e.g. Boker Tachtit, Umm el Tlel) contain substantialnumbers of elongated Levallois points. It should be noted that the trueextent of this apparent technological homogeneity of the IUP in the NearEast has yet to be firmly established through comparative study. InitialUpper Palaeolithic assemblages certainly differ technologically fromboth the late Mousterian which preceded them and the Upper Palaeolithic(Ahmarian and Aurignacian) which came later. Nonetheless, futuretechnological studies may well reveal the presence of more than onespecific system of core reduction. For now, however, the initial UpperPalaeolithic industries do stand together within the technologicalspectrum of the late Pleistocene The Late Pleistocene (also known as Upper Pleistocene or the Tarantian) is a stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. The beginning of the stage is defined by the base of Eemian interglacial phase before final glacial episode of Pleistocene 126,000 �� 5,000 years ago. in the Near East. This relative homogeneity of technological features, albeit broadlydefined, is accompanied a certain amount of typological diversity. AllIUP assemblages are dominated by Upper Palaeolithic tool forms(endscrapers, burins, truncations), although many of these tools weremade on Levallois blanks. Middle Palaeolithic forms (sidescrapers anddenticulates) may be present in some abundance as well. However, almostevery site or group of sites seems to have its own unique artefact See artifact. forms. At Boker Tachtit and other sites in the southern Levant, IUPassemblages contain so-called Emireh points, Levallois points thinnedbiderectionally at their bases. At one time the Emireh point wasconsidered an index fossil of the first Upper Palaeolithic industriesthroughout the region (Garrod 1951). While it may still be a validindicator for the southern Levant (Volkman and Kaufman 1983), the Emirehpoint is not especially common elsewhere. A few Emireh points have beenfound at sites in the Beirut area (Copeland 1986: 6-7), but here themain fossile directeur of the IUP is the chanfrein, or chamfered piece.Chanfreins were produced by a kind of fiat, lateral burin blow struck ona retouched margin, a technique which may have been employed toresharpen endscrapers. In contrast to Emireh points, which are notnormally very abundant, chamfered pieces are found in large numbers inthe lower part (stage 1) at Ksar Akil and in layers V-VII at Anteliasshelter. The type fossil of the 'Paleolithique intermediaire'at El Kowm is the 'Umm el Tlel' point, an elongated pointedblade thinned dorsally at the base by a series of small, laminarremovals detached before the piece was struck from the core (Boeda &Muhesen 1993: 56). Although they seem at first description to resembleEmireh points, Umm el Tlel points are technologically andmorphologically quite distinct. While it bears little similarity to the earliest Upper Palaeolithicof western Europe Western EuropeThe countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). (Aurignacian and Castelperronian), the IUP of the NearEast is not globally unique. Technologically, the resemblance to theBohunician of central Europe is striking. The Bohunician is ablade-based industry which exhibits an essentially Upper Palaeolithicretouched tool inventory while retaining Middle Palaeolithic elements,especially aspects of Levallois method, in the technology of blankproduction (Svoboda & Skrdla 1995; Svoboda et al. 1996: 107). InMoravia, Bohunician assemblages are dominated by endscrapers, withsmaller numbers of burins, leaf-points and retouched points. MiddlePalaeolithic tool forms such as sidescrapers, denticulates and evenLevallois points are also found in some abundance (Svoboda &Svobodova 1995; Svoboda et al. 1996). Similar industries have also beenfound in the eastern Carpathians. As with the Bohunician, blades andpointed flakes are often detached from bidirectional The ability to move, transfer or transmit in both directions. cores (Demidenko& Usik 1993). Much farther afield, the industry of layers 5 and 6 ofKara Kara(kär`ə), river, c.140 mi (230 km) long, NE European and NW Siberian Russia. It flows N from the N Urals into the Kara Sea, forming part of the traditional border between European and Asian Russia. It is navigable in its lower course. Bom cave in the Altai Mountains Altai MountainsRussian Altay Chinese Altay Shan Mongol Altayn NuruuMountain system, Central Asia. The range extends about 1,200 mi (2,000 km) in a southeast-northwest direction from the Gobi Desert to the West Siberian Plain, through parts of of Siberia also appears to bestructured along similar lines, with tool blanks made by a mixture ofLevallois and prismatic blade core technology (Derev'anko &Markin 1998). Most authors agree that the initial Upper Palaeolithic of the NearEast evolved in situ from some type of terminal Levantine Mousterian.According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Marks, Middle Palaeolithic assemblages rich in blades (theso-called 'early' Levantine Mousterian) persist untilrelatively late in the southern Levant, and the sequence at BokerTachtit documents a direct evolutionary transition from a laminar formof late Mousterian to the earliest Upper Palaeolithic (Marks 1988; 1990;Gilead 1991: 121). At Ksar Akil there may be a more pronounceddisjunction disjunction/dis��junc��tion/ (-junk��shun)1. the act or state of being disjoined.2. in genetics, the moving apart of bivalent chromosomes at the first anaphase of meiosis. between Middle and Upper Palaeolithic (Marks & Volkman1986), perhaps associated with an erosional interval (Copeland 1986: 6).As for relations with later industries, most researchers agree that theAhmarian, the next Upper Palaeolithic industry to appear in the region,evolved directly out of the IUP (e.g. Marks 1990; Garrod 1957: 442;Gilead 1991: 122). Ahmarian and initial Upper Palaeolithic assemblageshave been found in direct stratigraphic superposition su��per��po��si��tion?n.1. The act of superposing or the state of being superposed: "Yet another technique in the forensic specialist's repertoire is photo superposition" only at Ksar Akiland possibly Antelias shelter, however, and this more recent transitionhas not been investigated extensively. Despite the fact that it encompasses much of the easternMediterranean, the distribution of sites yielding initial UpperPalaeolithic assemblages is extremely discontinuous discontinuous/dis��con��tin��u��ous/ (dis?kon-tin��u-us)1. interrupted; intermittent; marked by breaks.2. discrete; separate.3. lacking logical order or coherence. . Stratigraphicallyintact IUP assemblages have been found in only 8 sites (including thosediscussed here), and most of the known sites are isolated, locallyunique occurrences. Only around Beirut is there what might be called a'concentration' of IUP sites (Ksar Akil, Antelias shelter, AbuHalka). Moreover, only Ksar Akil and Boker Tachtit preserve substantialsequences of initial Upper Palaeolithic deposits. Areas generally richin Palaeolithic deposits (e.g. Mt Carmel in Israel) have not yieldedsubstantial, intact initial Upper Palaeolithic layers, highlighting theapparent sparseness of this 'horizon' within the Near East. Ithas been suggested, however, that the absence of very early UpperPalaeolithic layers in some cave sequences may be due to an erosionalepisode (Bar Yosef & Vandermeersch 1972). Unfortunately, few absolute dates are available for the initialUpper Palaeolithic in the eastern Mediterranean. Most investigatorsassume that the earliest Upper Palaeolithic dates to sometime between45,000 and 40,000 years ago (Bar-Yosef et al. 1996; Gilead 1991; Schyle1992: 29-30): not coincidentally, this interval corresponds with theconventional dates for the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic transitionthroughout Eurasia. Level I at Boker Tachtit has yielded finiteradiocarbon dates extending back to 45,000 BP, putting a lower timelimit on overlying overlyingsuffocation of piglets by the sow. The piglets may be weak from illness or malnutrition, the sow may be clumsy or ill, the pen may be inadequate in size or poorly designed so that piglets cannot escape. IUP layers 2-4. Layer 4, at the top of the sequence,yielded a single date of 33,105[+ or -]4100 (Marks 1983b). A lateMousterian layer (26) underlying the IUP at Ksar Akil provided a singleradiocarbon date of 44,000 BP, although Mellars and Tixier argue, basedon extrapolation (mathematics, algorithm) extrapolation - A mathematical procedure which estimates values of a function for certain desired inputs given values for known inputs.If the desired input is outside the range of the known values this is called extrapolation, if it is inside then from more recent layers, that the basal UpperPalaeolithic at the site is actually about 50,000 years old (Mellars& Tixier 1989: 767). By way of reference, dates from Bohunicianlayers in Moravia range between 43,000 and 36,000 BP (Svoboda et al.1996: table 5.2), while layers 5 and 6 at Kara-Bom cave have yieldeddates of 43,300 and 43,200 years BP, respectively (Derev'anko &Markin 1998). The early Upper Palaeolithic in Turkey: Ucagizli cave and Kanal True Upper Palaeolithic sites are surprisingly scarce in Turkey.Sites containing Lower Palaeolithic and Mousterian as well asmicrolithic mi��cro��lith?n. ArchaeologyA very small blade made of flaked stone and used as a tool, especially in the European Mesolithic Period.mi late Upper and Epipalaeolithic assemblages are numerous(e.g. Albrecht 1988; Kokten 1960; Minzoni-Deroche 1993; Otte et al.1995; Yalcinkaya 1981; 1986; 1995; Yalcinkaya et al. 1995), but welldocumented non-microlithic Upper Palaeolithic assemblages are few andfar between. Recent surveys of published data (Schyle 1992; Harmankaya& Tanindi 1996) identify a number of sites as containing UpperPalaeolithic components, but many of these consist of a limited numberof surface finds, and few have been further investigated or verified(Otte 1998; Ozdogan 1998: 30-31). The Hatay region contains the best-documented early UpperPalaeolithic sites within the boundaries of the nation of Turkey.Centred on the capitol city Capitol City may refer to: A capital is the principal city or town associated with its government. Capitol City, Kentucky was a plan for a new capital of the United States, along with the Western District of Columbia, across the Ohio River from Metropolis, Illinois. of Antakya (ancient Antioch), the Hatayoccupies the extreme northeast corner of the Mediterranean basin The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have a Mediterranean climate, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, which [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]. The northernmost end of the RiftValley rift valley,elongated depression, trough, or graben in the earth's crust, bounded on both sides by normal faults and occurring on the continents or under the oceans. , through which the Orontes river Orontes RiverRiver, Middle East. Rising in the Al-Biqa' (Bekaa Valley) region of Lebanon and flowing north between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains, in Syria it passes the cities of Hims, where it has been dammed to form Hims Lake, and Hamah. (the Asi in Turkish) flows,extends into the eastern Hatay. Like much of the northern and easternMediterranean basin, the Hatay is a region of high relief, with deeplyincised river valleys and areas of low-lying coastal plain separated bymountains up to 1800 m high. The region is also rich in karstic terrain,with extensive exposures of Cretaceous and Eocene limestone containingnumerous caves and rockshelters. Two sites located near the Mediterranean shore of the Hatay,Ucagizli ('three mouths') cave and Kanal, have been shown tocontain substantial early Upper Palaeolithic layers. Ucagizli cave issituated on the Mediterranean coast about 10 km south of the point wherethe Asi (Orontes) river empties into the sea, not far north of theSyrian border [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]. The site is perchedon a steep slope at about 18 m above current sea level. As it appearstoday, Ucagizli represents the remains of a much larger collapsed cave.Substantial in situ Palaeolithic deposits are preserved in two mainareas, within a tunnel-like chamber (Locus 1) to the southwest, and bothwithin and outside two smaller cavities (Loci 2 and 3) situated to thenortheast [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED]. The deposits in Loci 2and 3 extend several metres out from the cliff face at ground surfaceand appear to be contiguous, but they are separated from Locus I by asteeply-eroded talus slope. In all three loci, Upper Palaeolithicdeposits are present immediately below the surface. The absence ofsignificant terminal Pleistocene or Holocene deposits may indicate thatthe roof of the cave collapsed sometime in the late Pleistocene,rendering it unattractive to later peoples. Ucagizli cave was discovered and first investigated by A.Minzoni-Deroche (1992a; 1992b; 1993), who excavated within the fullyenclosed southern chamber (Locus 1). In 1997, the authors further testedLocus 1 and began additional excavations in Loci 2 and 3. The sondage inLocus 2 exposed a stratigraphic sequence approximately 1.5 m deep,consisting of a series of terra rosa layers alternating withlighter-coloured deposits containing ash and calcite calcite(kăl`sīt), very widely distributed mineral, commonly white or colorless, but appearing in a great variety of colors owing to impurities. concretions[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]. All levels yielded artefacts andwell-preserved faunal remains attributable to the early UpperPalaeolithic. The bottom of the sequence has not yet been reached:excavation was halted temporarily by a heavily cemented layer whichcould not be penetrated in a small trench. Two main Upper Palaeolithic components are represented in thesequence from Ucagizli cave. The more recent of these, which is presentin all three localities, has been described in previous publications byMinzoni-Deroche (1992a; 1992b; 1993). In Locus 2, the correspondingmaterials come from layers A-D [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED].Minzoni-Deroche classified the assemblage as 'Aurignacian' andcompared it to the industry from level IV at Antelias shelter. Althoughthe comparison is valid, the terminology is not. Along with many fiatendscrapers manufactured on blades, the more recent assemblage fromUcagizli cave (which is still under study) contains large numbers ofretouched and pointed blades (el Wad points). It most closely resembleswhat are now called 'Ahmarian' industries such as those fromAntelias, Ksar Akil (stage 2 or 4) and Yabrud shelters 3 (layer 2) and 5(layer 4) (Schyle 1992; Ziffer 1981). The earlier, initial UpperPalaeolithic component is present in Loci 2 and 3 at Ucagizli cave butapparently not in Locus 1, as it was not reported by Minzoni-Deroche anddoes not appear to be represented in collections from the earlierexcavations. In Locus 2, the initial Upper Palaeolithic materials comefrom layers G through I. The nature of the assemblage from layers E andF is more ambiguous; the artefacts bear some resemblance to those fromboth the overlying and underlying layers, but because available samplesizes are small, it is impossible to be sure at present whether thiscombination of traits reflects physical mixing or an industry that istruly intermediate. The site known as Kanal is one of a series of caves androckshelters in the soft limestone cliffs above the villages of Magracikand Cevlik, about 15 km north of the mouth of the Asi river. This areais the site of Seluccia, an important port city of the classical period.Many of the natural caves have been transformed into storage andhabitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas rooms or have been quarried for limestone, but a number ofthem preserve intact Pleistocene sediments. M. Senyurek and E. Bostanciconducted excavations in several of the Magracik and Cevlik caves duringthe late 1950s and 1960s. Three of these, Merdivenli cave (sometimescalled 'First cave'), Tikali ('Plugged') cave andKanal yielded Palaeolithic materials. The Kanal site contained bothUpper and Middle Palaeolithic strata. Merdivenli and Tikali cavesyielded mainly Middle Palaeolithic - described as Levalloiso-Mousterian- although a thin Upper Palaeolithic layer was reported at Merdivenli.Results from Senyurek and Bostanci's excavations have beensummarized in a series of publications (Bostanci 1968; Senyurek 1959;Senyurek & Bostanci 1958a; 1958b), but the industries have neverbeen described in detail. Deposits at the site of Kanal are exposed in the vertical walls ofa deep channel excavated during classical times. The site has beendescribed as a cave, although if this was originally [TABULAR DATA FORTABLE 1 OMITTED] the case most of the roof was long ago removed byancient excavations. Contrary to some published descriptions (e.g.Minzoni-Deroche 1992b; 1993), the deposits at Kanal do not appear to bein secondary position. Despite disturbance during the classical period,the deposits appear to have retained at least gross stratigraphicintegrity, as samples from successive levels of the 1967 excavationsreveal very little mixing of the Mousterian and Upper Palaeolithiccomponents. Senyurek & Bostanci (1958a; 1958b) described the UpperPalaeolithic of Kanal as early 'Aurignacian', but this is anoutdated terminology. Although these investigators were aware of theso-called 'Emiran' of the Levant, their comparisons werestrictly typological in nature. They noted (correctly) the absence ofEmireh points from sites in the Magracik/Cevlik area, concluding thatthis particular stage was missing from the Hatay area. However, as wehave seen from more recent research, the Emireh point is not a verywidespread horizon marker. Technologically, the materials from Kanal dobear strong resemblance to the initial Upper Palaeolithic of areasfarther south. Technological and typological aspects of the Ucagizli and Kanalassemblages The collections from Ucagizli and Kanal were obtained using ratherdifferent recovery strategies, and the presentation of data from the twosites reflects these asymmetrical collection biases. During the recentexcavations at Ucagizli all sediments were dry sieved through fine mesh(c. 2 mm.). The sample from Ucagizli is thus relatively complete, but itis also small. Senyurek and Bostanci either did not sieve sediments fromtheir excavations or else they discarded most of the debitage The term debitage refers to the totality of waste material produced during lithic reduction and the production of chipped stone tools. This assemblage includes, but is not limited to, different kinds of lithic flakes, shatter, and production errors and rejects. . However,retouched tools, unmodified blades and Levallois pieces weresystematically collected. The materials from Kanal help to provide amore complete typological picture of the initial Upper Palaeolithic inthe region. The majority of artefacts from the coastal Palaeolithic sites inthe Hatay were manufactured from high-quality flint obtained as heavilyrolled pebbles, probably from marine beaches. based on the sizes ofartefacts, the pebbles selected appear to have averaged from 15 to 20 cmin diameter. Because raw materials were obtained in relatively small'packages' artefacts tend to be smaller and more'delicate' than specimens from other eastern Mediterraneansites of comparable age. A small proportion of artefacts from bothUcagizli and Kanal preserve white, chalky cortex, showing that they wereobtained directly from a source of flint nodules rather than fromsecondary beach deposits. TABLE 1 summarizes some of the basic technological features of theIUP assemblages from Ucagizli and Kanal. In terms of the retouched toolinventory, these are clearly blade-based assemblages. Blades outnumberflakes as blanks for tools by a ratio of about 2:1, except in the smallsample from Ucagizli layers E and F. As is often the case in the UpperPalaeolithic, blades and blade fragments make up a significantly smallerproportion of the debitage, especially the fraction under 25 mm inmaximum dimension. Overall, blades tend to be relatively broad and manyare wider at the base than at the distal end (e.g. [ILLUSTRATION FORFIGURES 4 NOS. 4, 6, 7, 16 OMITTED]). Again with the exception ofUcagizli layers E and F, the largest plurality of blades (both retouchedand unretouched) have faceted platforms. Plain butts are the second mostcommon variety. Platforms are relatively broad and deep and bulbs ofpercussion are well-defined as a rule, indicative of the use of a hardhammer. Cores are quite scarce in the Ucagizli sample. Consistent with themorphology of the blade blanks, however, both of the specimens from thelower layers (G-I) are single platform blade cores with comparativelyfiat faces of detachment, converging flake scars and faceted strikingplatforms ([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 NOS. 5, 9 OMITTED]. A largersample of cores is available for the Kanal site. The morphologies of theKanal specimens are quite variable, but all are blade/bladelet cores.Several of the cores from Kanal are flat, like the two specimens fromUcagizli, but pyramidal, cylindrical and even burin-like specimens arealso present. Roughly 40% of the Kanal cores preserve faceted strikingsurfaces. All cores from both sites are relatively small and appear tohave been extensively exploited prior to being abandoned. The assemblages from both Kanal and Ucagizli are typologicallyUpper Palaeolithic (TABLE 2). The most abundant retouched tools areendscrapers [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4, NOS. 1, 8, 10, 13 OMITTED], mostof which are manufactured on relatively fiat blades or flakes. At Kanal,short, semi-circular endscrapers made on flakes or blade segments([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 NO. 10 OMITTED] are also common. Carinated car��i��nat��edadj.Carinate. and nosed scrapers - markers of the classic Aurignacian - are present atboth sites but are not at all numerous. In the sample from Ucagizlicave, burins are the second most common artefact class, while at Kanal,retouched and retouched pointed blades (el Wad points) are second inabundance to endscrapers. El Wad points are also quite common in themore recent Upper Palaeolithic assemblages at Ucagizli cave, and theirpresence in the Kanal assemblage could indicate physical mixing of morethan one type of Upper Palaeolithic industry. Alternatively, the Kanalassemblage might indeed be typologically and chronologicallyintermediate between the two components at Ucagizli. Relatively rareartefact forms of special interest in the Kanal assemblages includethree pointed blades with curved backs, reminiscent of Chattelperronpoints (e.g. [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 NO. 12 OMITTED]), and onepossible chanfrein ([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 NO. 14 OMITTED]). TypicalMiddle Palaeolithic artefact classes, including Levallois points,sidescrapers, retouched points, notches and denticulates make up a smallproportion of the assemblages from both sites. It is worth noting thatthe Levallois points from Kanal are not like the broad, thin points fromthe Mousterian deposits in the area, but instead are narrow andrelatively thick (e.g. [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 NO. 15 OMITTED]): theyprobably represent unsuccessful attempts to strike blades from coressuch as those illustrated in FIGURE 4. For a variety of reasons related to both conditions of preservationand excavation techniques, almost nothing in known about thearchaeofaunas associated with IUP industries in the easternMediterranean. Only a small sample of faunal remains was retained fromthe early excavations at Kanal, but a modest sample is available fromthe recent excavations at Ucagizli cave, where organic preservation isextremely good. The large mammal component of the fauna from layers E-Iis dominated by Capra aegagrus(?), Dama sp. and Capreolus capreolus Capreolus capreolussee roe deer. , indescending order of abundance. This mix of terrestrial species suggestsbroken forest conditions and exposed rocky slopes. Analyses ofmicrofaunal remains will provide a better picture of ecologicalconditions. There seems to have been little or no use of marine shellfor food in the earlier, IUP component at Ucagizli, a sharp contrastwith the more recent Upper Palaeolithic layers in which mollusc molluscmembers of the phylum Mollusca, which comprises about 50,000 species. Includes snails, slugs and the aquatic molluscs��oysters, mussels, clams, cockles, arkshells, scallop, abalone, cuttlefish, squid. remainsare abundant. The scarcity of shellfish debris may indicate that thelower layers formed at a time when global climates were much colder anddrier and the sea coast more distant than at present. While molluscspecies used for food are absent, a few perforated shell beads(Nassarius gibbosula and Columbella rustica) were recovered from initialUpper Palaeolithic layers G-I. Radiometric dates Two AMS radiocarbon determinations were obtained from layer H ofthe test trench in Locus 2 of Ucagizli cave (FIGURE 3, the second layerfrom the bottom). The two uncalibrated determinations, 39,400[+ or-]1200 BP (AA-27994) and 38,900[+ or -]1100 BP (AA-27995), are in closeagreement. No widely accepted calibration of the radiocarbon chronologyexists for the age range in question. However, recent attempts atcalibration-based variations in the strength of the earth'smagnetic field (van Andel 1998) and carbon dating of plant materialsfrom varved lake sediments (Kitagawa & van der Plicht 1998) suggestthat radiocarbon determinations in the range of the two samples fromUcagizli underestimate the true ages by approximately 2000 years. Thus,the actual age of layer H is more likely to be somewhere around 41,000years. Discussion The assemblages from layers G-I at Ucagizli cave and from Kanal fitwell within the general scope of the initial Upper Palaeolithic in theeastern Mediterranean. The technology of blank production, whichinvolved the manufacture of blades by hard hammer percussion from coreswith faceted striking platforms, seems to be an especially goodindicator of this phase. Typologically, the assemblages from the twosites are clearly Upper Palaeolithic. By and large, the distinctive'index fossils' of other initial UP or'transitional' assemblages - chanfreins, Emireh and Umm etTlel points - are missing from Ucagizli cave and Kanal. There areseveral possible explanations for this fact. At Ksar Akil, theassemblage from layer 21, at the top of Stage 1, is much poorer inchanfreins than the underlying levels. Thus, the two Hatay sites couldcontain relatively recent versions of initial UP industries, anexplanation which is certainly consistent with the AMS dates from layerH at Ucagizli. Another possibility is simply that no single index fossilserves to identify this phase or period for the entire easternMediterranean. As discussed above, none of the 'typical' IUPartefact forms is found in abundance at all sites: instead, each typeseems to be confined to be in childbed.See also: Confine to a relatively small region. Perhaps this isanother illustration of the increasing 'regionalization' ofmaterial culture which appears to have begun in the late Mousterian(Kozlowski 1992; Mellars 1996: 406) and which continued throughout theUpper Palaeolithic. The radiometric dates for layer H are within expected range ofdates for the initial Upper Palaeolithic of the Near East, albeit at theyounger end of that range. On the other hand, dates for most otherinitial UP sites are less than secure. Age estimates for Stage 1 at KsarAkil (layers 25 through 21) were obtained by extrapolation from datedlayers both above and below. Level 1 at Boker Tachtit, dated to 45,000BP or older, is considered terminal Middle Palaeolithic by the excavator(Marks 1988:114), so we know only that the overlying Upper Palaeolithicmaterial is more recent. The sole determination from level 4 at BokerTachtit may actually suggest a significantly more recent age than layerH at Ucagizli cave, but the large standard deviation renders it somewhatambiguous. More problematic is the chronological overlap with dates for theAhmarian, which succeeded the initial Upper Palaeolithic in the NearEast. The early Ahmarian of units 3 and 4 at Kebara cave (Bar Yosef etal. 1996: 303) has provided a number of finite AMS radiocarbon dates inexcess of 42,000 BP. Open-air Ahmarian sites in the Sinai (Abu NoshraII, Phillips 1994: 173) and in the Negev (Boker A, Marks 1983b: 37) haveyielded dates of c. 38-39,000 BP. There are several possibleexplanations for this apparent overlap. It could simply be a matter ofcontamination. Due to the acute effects which even a tiny amount ofmodern contaminant contaminant/con��tam��i��nant/ (kon-tam��in-int) something that causes contamination. contaminantsomething that causes contamination. can have on a sample of 'dead' carbon, someresearchers consider all radiocarbon ages close to or greater than40,000 years to be minimum estimates. The absence of a widely-acceptedcalibration for radiocarbon dates greater than 22,000 years could alsobe a contributing factor. At least one recent attempt to calibrate To adjust or bring into balance. Scanners, CRTs and similar peripherals may require periodic adjustment. Unlike digital devices, the electronic components within these analog devices may change from their original specification. See color calibration and tweak. theradiocarbon curve back to the limits of the technique suggests that,while all determinations of between 30,000 and 50,000 BP underestimatetrue ages, the size of the discrepancy declines sharply fordeterminations of greater than 39,000 (van Andel 1998). If thishypothesis holds up to further scrutiny, then it may simply be the casethat that 14C ages in the range of 39,000 to 45,000 are highlycompressed in terms of actual years. Finally, one cannot rule out thepossibility of a brief period of coexistence between the initial UP andthe early Ahmarian. Although the latter may well have replaced theformer, it is unlikely to have done so simultaneously throughout theNear East. When applied to the transition from Lower to MiddlePalaeolithic or from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic, improved datingtechniques have shown repeatedly that 'ancestral' forms oftechnology persisted in some regions long after the industries whichwere to eventually replace them first appeared. Ucagisli cave and Kanal help to fill in the discontinuous map ofthe earliest Upper Palaeolithic cultures in the eastern Mediterranean.These two sites represent the northernmost occurrence of the NearEastern form of IUP industry. As such, they carry us one step closer toclosing the gap in archaeological knowledge about the areas between theLevant, eastern Europe and north-central Asia, where similar assemblageshave been described. Perhaps the most difficult lacuna lacuna/la��cu��na/ (lah-ku��nah) pl. lacu��nae ? [L.]1. a small pit or hollow cavity.2. a defect or gap, as in the field of vision (scotoma). to fill will beAnatolia proper, where non-microlithic Upper Palaeolithic assemblagesare remarkably few (Hours et al. 1973; Otte 1998; Ozdogan 1998). Theimportance of an accurate assessment of the chronology and geographicspread of the first Upper Palaeolithic cultures cannot beunderestimated. Such data are crucial to understanding whetherdistinctiveinitial Upper Palaeolithic industries are essentially localdevelopments, or whether they represent evolutionary processes occurringmore-or-less synchronously at a much larger geographic scale. Acknowledgements. We must express our gratitude to the director andstaff of the Antakya Museum, our partners in the exploratory excavationsat Ucagizli cave. Ayla Sevim, Cesur Pehleven, Ismail Ozer and MehmetSagir were instrumental in successful completion of the fieldwork.Artefact illustrations in FIGURE 4 are the work of Kristopher Kerry. 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