Sunday, October 2, 2011

Industrial efficiency, social order and moral purity: housing reform thought in English Canada, 1900-1950.

Industrial efficiency, social order and moral purity: housing reform thought in English Canada, 1900-1950. Abstract: This paper traces the evolution of reform ideology in the housingsphere in the first half of the twentieth century by criticallyanalyzing the ideas and practices of a number of key housing reformersand agencies. Premised on middle-class beliefs in the necessity of stateintervention and the capacity of the trained expert to alleviate socialconflict, the movement for housing betterment centred on a doctrine of`community' that ostensibly os��ten��si��ble?adj.Represented or appearing as such; ostensive: His ostensible purpose was charity, but his real goal was popularity. stood above labour and capital, aimingto harmonize social relations for the greater good of the nation. Tothis end, stress was placed on bettering the physical conditions ofworkers' dwellings in order to improve the productive capacity ofthe labour force. But the concentration on the physical quality ofworkers' homes was also tied to the wider ideological goal ofstrengthening the nuclear family -- a cornerstone of the nation and thestate in the estimation of reform-minded citizens. The role housingreform could play as part of the larger project of securing socialconsent by stabilizing family structures and contributing to theconstruction of a distinct national identity constituted pivotalconcerns in the discourse of the reform effort. Progressives aimed toextend state intervention in the housing sphere in order to allay theimpact of industrialization industrializationProcess of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and and preserve class cooperation and socialhierarchy Social hierarchyA fundamental aspect of social organization that is established by fighting or display behavior and results in a ranking of the animals in a group. . Yet without losing sight of this distinct regulatory thrustfrom above, it is also necessary to chart how housing experts and policymakers groped through the contradictions of urban society in a creativemanner they themselves saw as more or less disinterested. Resume: L'article trace l'evolution de l'ideologie qui apermis la reforme du logement au cours de la premiere moitie duvingtieme siecle. Il fait une analyse critique des idees et des methodesmises en oeuvre par un certain nombre de reformateurs etd'organismes cles qui y ont participe. Le mouvement pourl'amelioration du logement se fondait sur les croyances de laclasse moyenne en la necessite de l'intervention de l'Etat eten la capacite des experts dument formes a attenuer les conflitssociaux. Il etait centre sur une conception de la<<communaute>> qui transcendait ostensiblement le capital etla main-d'oeuvre et visait l'barmonisation des relationssociales pour le plus grand bien de la nation. A cette fin, on mitl'accent sur l'amelioration des conditions de logement destravailleurs dans le but d'accroitre la capacite de production dela main-d'oeuvre. Toutefois, l'attention portee a la qualitephysique des habitations des travailleurs etait egalement liee al'objectif ideologique plus global de renforcer la famillenucleaire, pierre angulaire de la nation et de l'Etat pour lestenants de la reforme. Le discours de ces derniers etait centre sur lerole de la reforme du logement en tant qu'element d'un projetplus vaste, soit assurer le consensus social en stabilisant la structurefamiliale et en contribuant a l'edification d'une identitenationale distincte. Les progressistes voulaient que l'Etatintervienne dans le domaine du logement afin d'attenuerl'impact de l'industrialisation et de preserver la cooperationde classe et la hierarchie sociale. Toutefois, sans negligerl'importance de cette pression regulatrice distincte venued'en haut, il faut expliquer comment les experts en logement et lesdecideurs ont reussi a louvoyer entre les contradictions de la societeurbaine d'une maniere creative qu'ils consideraient eux-memescomme plus ou moins desinteressee. In the Autumn of 1910, Henry Vivian, British M.P. for Birkenheadand prestigious housing reformer, visited numerous Canadian cities topresent a series of "illustrated lectures" on city planning city planning,process of planning for the improvement of urban centers in order to provide healthy and safe living conditions, efficient transport and communication, adequate public facilities, and aesthetic surroundings. and housing reform. Vivian's graphic description of slums anddilapidated housing conditions housing conditionsnpl → condiciones fpl de habitabilidadhousing conditionsnpl → conditions fpl de logement in the Old World surprised few listeners.Tales of squalid hovels with overcrowded `inmates' breeding crimeand moral degeneracy were commonly associated with European and,increasingly, American cities. What startled the sensitive scruples ofCanada's social elite was Vivian's pointed depiction ofwidespread slum conditions in Canada. In a lecture in Ottawa, Viviansternly noted that in most Canadian cities "less science andforethought fore��thought?n.1. Deliberation, consideration, or planning beforehand.2. Preparation or thought for the future. See Synonyms at prudence. are given to the care of human beings than a modern farmergives to the raising of his pigs." (1) Vivian was not the first person to raise concerns about housingconditions in Canada. Moral reformers in the late nineteenth century hadisolated the inferior state of working-class housing as one of the keysocial ills of Canada's burgeoning industrial cities. Yet there wasstill a sense of unease about the nature of the problem and the need forintervention in 1910 since Canadian cities, it was widely believed, hadavoided the acute social problems of urbanization characteristic ofEurope and the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Moreover, the view that activeintervention by concerned citizens and the state was needed to solveeconomic and social problems was still the preserve of a few forward-minded intellectuals and labour movement activists. This allchanged in the tumultuous years surrounding the First World War as thehousing reform movement blossomed under the auspices of governmentsconvinced of the necessity of solving the critical problems of poorhousing conditions. Amidst widespread social unrest, governments wereforced to act by establishing the first housing programs, setting thestage for the expanded social housing ventures which marked thepost-Second World War era. This paper traces the evolution of reform ideology in the housingsphere in the first half of the twentieth century by criticallyanalyzing the ideas and practices of a number of key housing reformersand agencies. Premised on middle-class beliefs in the necessity of stateintervention and the capacity of the trained expert to alleviate socialconflict, the movement for housing betterment centred on a doctrine of`community' that ostensibly stood above labour and capital, aimingto harmonize social relations for the greater good of the nation. Tothis end, stress was placed on bettering the physical conditions ofworkers' dwellings in order to improve the productive capacity ofthe labour force. But the concentration on the physical quality ofworkers' homes was also tied to the wider ideological goal ofstrengthening the family - a cornerstone of the nation and the state inthe estimation of reform-minded citizens. The role housing reform could play as part of the larger project ofsecuring social consent by stabilizing family structures andcontributing to the construction of a distinct national identityconstituted pivotal concerns in the discourse of the reform effort.Progressives aimed to extend state intervention in the housing sphere inorder to allay the impact of industrialization and preserve classcooperation and social hierarchy. Yet without losing sight of thisdistinct regulatory thrust from above, it is also necessary to chart howhousing experts and policy makers groped through the contradictions ofurban society in a creative manner they themselves saw as more or lessdisinterested. As the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci Antonio Gramsci (IPA: ['ɡramʃi]) (January 22, 1891 – April 27, 1937) was an Italian writer, politician and political theorist. insightfully putit: "The intellectuals are breaking loose from the dominant classin order to unite themselves to it more intimately." (2) Responses to the Housing Problem Before 1914 The `Housing Question' in Canada evolved out of the broaderurban reform movement which emerged in the late nineteenth and earlytwentieth century. (3) Middle- and upper-class reformers attempted tocome to terms with what they perceived as an alarming rise in urbanpoverty, child neglect and crime - all regarded as corrosive influenceson the social order. In the first decade of the new century, theresidues of nineteenth- century social thought were still evident, ashousing reformers stressed individual responsibility and moral virtue asthe fundamental traits of social and economic well-being. However,explanations of the urban crisis usually began to combine these moralimperatives with distinct consideration for efficient living conditions living conditionsnpl → condiciones fpl de vidaliving conditionsnpl → conditions fpl de vieliving conditionsliving which spoke to the widespread apprehension about the effects of povertyon economic performance and social harmony. Housing first became a major concern in Canadian urban centres dueto the increasing dangers of contagious diseases and `immorality'which seemingly spread from the slums to more affluent neighbourhoods.Since infectious diseases could spread to the entire city there was aclear incentive for reformers to clean up the slums. As Paul Rutherford This article is about the former member of Frankie Goes to Hollywood. For information on the trombone player of the same name see Paul Rutherford (trombone player). For the English footballer, see Paul Rutherford (footballer). aptly notes: "Disease did not respect social standing." (4)Squalid housing conditions were an important impetus behind theemergence of the modern public health project around the turn of thecentury. While most public health ideas at the time incorporatedelements of both schools of current medical thought - environmentalism environmentalism,movement to protect the quality and continuity of life through conservation of natural resources, prevention of pollution, and control of land use. and eugenics (5) -- medical officials concentrated on the slum`environment,' arguing that once these slovenly slov��en��ly?adj.1. Untidy, as in dress or appearance.2. Marked by negligence; slipshod. See Synonyms at sloppy.slov blots were removedthe housing problem would vanish. In keeping with this ecologicalemphasis, dwelling inspections, building standards and sanitaryregulations provided the early groundwork for public health activity. But there was a pronounced interest in eradicating the moralfailings of slum dwellers as well. J.J. Kelso, the founder of the theChildren's Aid Society See also Children's Aid Society (Canada).The Children’s Aid Society (CAS) is a private charitable organization based in New York City. and an early advocate of housing reform,applied the metaphor of disease to the moral degeneration of the urbanenvironment itself, likening the slum to a rotting community, a"perfect labyrinth of hovels." (6) Social purity campaigns ofthe era and sensationalist sen��sa��tion��al��ism?n.1. a. The use of sensational matter or methods, especially in writing, journalism, or politics.b. Sensational subject matter.c. Interest in or the effect of such subject matter. critiques in newspapers and urban affairsjournals were wedded to a traditional focus on moral depravity. (7) A1906 editorial in the Toronto Daily News indicates the emphasis placedon public decency: "...the Ward [a slum] constitutes a constantmenace to the physical and moral health of the city. It is an open sorefrom which flow fetid fetid/fet��id/ (fe��tid) (fet��id) having a rank, disagreeable smell. fet��idadj.Having an offensive odor.fetidhaving a rank, disagreeable smell. currents which cannot but be corrupting to thewhole community." (8) The physical scarring of the city was linkedexplicitly to the slide into moral impurity im��pu��ri��ty?n. pl. im��pu��ri��ties1. The quality or condition of being impure, especially:a. Contamination or pollution.b. Lack of consistency or homogeneity; adulteration.c. , adding ideologicalammunition to the reform crusaders' attempt to repair the socialfabric of the city. In the face of intense market competition, some manufacturers soonadded their voice to the chorus of concern for the workingclass housingproblem. While partially couched in arguments about the moralconsequences of substandard living conditions on workers, industrialistswere more attentive to the threat to workplace efficiency thatinadequate dwellings posed. Although they upbraided "rapaciouslandlords" (9) for raising the costs of housing and therebyincreasing the pressure for wage increases, employers hinted that blamelay beyond the sole responsibility of unscrupulous individuals.Presaging the later obsession with instilling efficiency in all facetsof life, they discerned that there was a direct link between thefactories and the homes of workers, a relationship that needed to bereinforced. "It is the best class of philanthropy that whichresults in raising the condition of our citizens and thereby increasingtheir efficiency," Industrial Canada, the organ of the CanadianManufacturers Association (CMA CMA - Concert Multithread Architecture from DEC. ), asserted in 1911. (10) Bettering thehousing conditions of the working class also promised to offset thespectre of class conflict. Recognizing that by improving homeenvironments a healthy, contented workforce could be generated, sectionsof the business community joined reformers in calling for action on thehousing question. Since the family was to many in the upper classes the verywellspring well��spring?n.1. The source of a stream or spring.2. A source: a wellspring of ideas.wellspringNoun of community life, early reformers often isolated thephysical and moral effects of substandard housing quality on family lifeas a prime motive for action. The home in reform discourse was more thanmerely a physical structure; it reflected a widely held set of ideasabout society, the family and women. Declining birthrates, thetransformation of industrial production and women's increasingparticipation in the wage labour force prompted early reformers to focusupon the threats to the `natural' role of women as mother andprovider in the family home. Kelso echoed the sentiments of many in thereform community when he described the family home as the"foundation stone of the state." (11) The early domesticscience movement aspired to fortify for��ti��fy?v. for��ti��fied, for��ti��fy��ing, for��ti��fiesv.tr.To make strong, as:a. To strengthen and secure (a position) with fortifications.b. To reinforce by adding material. the mortar by applying rationaltechniques to living in order to reinforce the `proper' family formand enhance workplace efficiency. "Until women have learned thescience of living and properly regulating the household expenditure inproportion to the income," one domestic scientist declared,"wage earners at least will be labouring under adisadvantage." (12) Improving housing aimed to ensure stable familyarrangements free from the insidious influences of the city. The responses of moral reformers, some far-sighted capitalists andeven public health officials to the problem of working-class housingwere usually based on superficial impressions gained from first-handobservations or lurid newspaper stories that exposed the racy rac��y?adj. rac��i��er, rac��i��est1. Having a distinctive and characteristic quality or taste.2. Strong and sharp in flavor or odor; piquant or pungent.3. Risqu��; ribald.4. undersideof Canada's metropolises. The paucity of solid data on livingconditions in the cities provoked observers to embark on detailedstudies to ascertain the precise nature and extent of the problem. In Montreal, wealthy manufacturer Herbert Ames Sir Herbert Brown Ames (27 June 1863 – March 31, 1954) was a Canadian businessman, philanthropist and politician.Born in Montreal, Ames inherited a family shoe company and later worked in insurance but used much of his fortune to help the poor and fight corruption. published The CityBelow the Hill in 1897, a statistical examination of social conditionsin Montreal's working-class west end. Ames's study chartedincomes, rental costs, and housing density and types through survey andmapping techniques. Frequent comparisons to the European housingsituation and the inclusion of model house plans reflected Ames'sawareness of international conditions. In a vein characteristic ofpublic health reform, he stressed the lack of proper sanitaryfacilities, insufficient sunlight and air, and constricted living spacein working-class tenements which resulted in deficient public health andhigh mortality rates. Despite its limited precision, the study providedsome hard data which reinforced the general impression that housingconditions were in need of substantial improvement. Ames combined an essentially idealistic view of social reform withan empirical orientation on urban problems. He highlighted the necessityof "scientific knowledge," but advocated decidedly moderatephilanthropic solutions based on his belief that the "businessexperience" of the upper classes should be rationally applied tourban problems. (13) Where many of his con temporaries trod a fine linebetween environmentalism and individualism, Ames grasped the centralityof wider social conditions in the causes of urban degradation. Herefuted the argument that "drink, crime or voluntary idleness"(14) were the underlying factors behind urban misery. Still, moralregeneration loomed large in Ames's approach. He looked to theenlightened attitudes of philanthropists to solve the housing problemand disapproved of state intervention in the housing market. He sharedthe same concerns and assumptions of crusading journalists: the moraleffects of overcrowding overcrowdingovercrowding of animal accommodation. Many countries now publish codes of practice which define what the appropriate volumetric allowances should be for each species of animal when they are housed indoors. Breaches of these codes is overcrowding. , the individual responsibility of tenants andlandlords, and the essentially self-correcting tendencies of theeconomy. By providing minimal state assistance through sanitaryregulations and the moral uplift of reform from above, Ames hoped toraise society as a whole: "Increase in ability to surroundthemselves with influences which improve the mind, morals and health ofthis part of the community means elevation for society from itsfoundations, whereby all above is also raised." (15) Bridging the spiritually-based moralism mor��al��ism?n.1. A conventional moral maxim or attitude.2. The act or practice of moralizing.3. Often undue concern for morality. of nineteenth-centurysocial criticism and the scientific social analysis of the twentiethcentury was the Social Gospel Social Gospel,liberal movement within American Protestantism that attempted to apply biblical teachings to problems associated with industrialization. It took form during the latter half of the 19th cent. Movement. Its primary reform component,the Social Service Congress of Canada, consisted of representatives fromthe Protestant churches This is a list of Protestant churches by denomination. Anglican/Episcopal ChurchAnglican CommunionAnglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia Anglican Diocese of Auckland = Archdeaconry of Waimate= = Parish of Kaitaia , farm and labour groups, and the Woman'sChristian Temperance Union. In the words of one its spokespersons, itconcentrated upon "the impressive fact that in this civilized andChristian country both civilization and Christianity are challenged bythe economic, industrial and social conditions upon which the fabric ofthe state is erected." (16) The magnitude of social dislocation andthe incapacity The absence of legal ability, competence, or qualifications.An individual incapacitated by infancy, for example, does not have the legal ability to enter into certain types of agreements, such as marriage or contracts. to achieve effective reform compelled a shift in emphasisto the wider social environment. In 1913 the Congress undertookcomprehensive surveys of five urban and two rural areas throughoutCanada. Attention was drawn in these studies to the problems of shoddydwelling construction, inadequate sanitation, and the attendant moraldecay Moral decay may mean: Moral decay (sociology), the descent of a society into decadence. Moral Decay (MUD), a multi-user online role-playing game. The Moral Decay Alliance, a group of players on the online game. , conditions which were particularly marked in the industrialcities. (17) Social Gospellers' concern with social investigationdemonstrates that the scientific bases of housing reform were beginningto overtake the individualistic and philanthropic inclination of earlyreformers, although they were still animated by traditional moralimperatives. (18) For the majority of middle- and upper-class commentators, it wasstill convenient to attribute poverty and criminality to individualweaknesses rather than structural flaws in the economy and society. But,despite the limited restrictive solutions suggested to the housingproblem, early housing reform responses should not be underestimated.The Victorian creed of the "inexorability of material and moralprogress" (19) and faith in individualistic solutions weregradually eroding in the face of palpable threats of class conflict andthe recognition of the increasingly interdependent nature of modernsociety. So threatening were these social dislocations that IndustrialCanada cautioned that: "Out of the slums stalk the Socialist withhis red flag, the Union agitator ag��i��ta��tor?n.1. One who agitates, especially one who engages in political agitation.2. An apparatus that shakes or stirs, as in a washing machine.Noun 1. with the auctioneer's voice andthe Anarchist with his torch." (20) In order to stave off suchconflictual social relations, as well as the menace to family life posedby women's changing role and the dilution of the emerging nationalidentity by immigrants, reformers appreciated that some form ofsustained intervention was required. (21) The crucible of the FirstWorld War would accelerate the appeal of social scientific analysis,interacting neatly with a growing state prepared to intercede moredirectly in the housing question. War and Society: Housing Reform from 1914-30 The drive for scientific approaches to urban difficulties beganbefore the First World War but received a great boost during wartime asgovernments faced the exigencies of rapacious international economic andmilitary competition. In the housing sphere, this was manifested in aheightened sense of urgency for state intervention, predicated on thebelief that only a rational, state-supported approach tourban-industrial problems would offset the perils of economic crisis,labour strife, family dissolution and the dilution of `Canadian'citizenship. It was in this period of anxious reassessment of thecountry's social problems that the movement for housing improvementfirst blossomed. The years from the First World War through the early1930s saw the establishment of a city planning profession with housingas a principal component and irregular but expanding governmentinitiatives to improve national housing conditions. The Commission of Conservation, 1909-21, was the first federalorganization devoted to considering the afflictions generated byindustrialization. It was commissioned in 1909 and charged withinvestigating the general field of natural and human resourceconservation, collecting, interpreting and publicizing information, andadvising on policy issues. The Town Planning town planning:see city planning. Branch published a monthlybulletin, Conservation of Life, whose circulation reached 12,000 in1917. (22) The Commission also extended its activities into the academy,inaugurating lecture courses at the University of Toronto Research at the University of Toronto has been responsible for the world's first electronic heart pacemaker, artificial larynx, single-lung transplant, nerve transplant, artificial pancreas, chemical laser, G-suit, the first practical electron microscope, the first cloning of T-cells, and McGillUniversity McGill University,at Montreal, Que., Canada; coeducational; chartered 1821, opened 1829. It was named for James McGill, who left a bequest to establish it. Its real development dates from 1855 when John W. Dawson became principal. in 1919-20. The stress on extensive publicity and educationechoed the contemporary belief that enlightened public opinion wouldensure effective action. Indeed, an appreciative article in SaturdayNight on the eve On the Eve (Накануне in Russian) is the third novel by famous Russian writer Ivan Turgenev, best known for his short stories and the novel Fathers and Sons. of the Commission's demise, proclaimed that in thesphere of town planning it had "shouldered the burden of creating,so to speak, a national conscience." (23) The Commission's public health branch was first appointed todeal with housing issues. This is indicative of the concern with theenvironmental health aspects of housing hardship - sanitation anddisease prevention. Traditional medical advice focused on personalhygiene, community sanitation and health education mixed with ahereditarian he��red��i��tar��i��an?n.One who supports hereditarianism.adj.Relating to or based on hereditarianism. strain which viewed the corruption of the social order as aresult of the biological inferiority of certain persons, especiallyimmigrants. But the rapid and erratic economic growth of the period alsobrought to the fore the pressing issues of anarchic urban developmentand failures of the residential construction industry to provideadequate quantities of affordable housing. The new profession of town orcity planning sought to fill the gap by promising a more wholisticapproach to land development and housing. The masthead mast��head?n.1. Nautical The top of a mast.2. The listing in a newspaper or periodical of information about its staff, operation, and circulation.3. of the Journal ofthe Town Planning Institute of Canada concisely defined theprofession's function as "the scientific and orderlydisposition of land and buildings in use and development with a view toobviating congestion The condition of a network when there is not enough bandwidth to support the current traffic load. congestion - When the offered load of a data communication path exceeds the capacity. and securing economic and social efficiency, healthand well-being in urban and rural communities." (24) As MartinDaunton puts it, town planning strived to ameliorate the vagaries ofunbridled free enterprise, introducing "order and discipline forthe benefit of market forces by creating an agreed framework of debatefor planners, developers, and politicians." (25) Public interest in town planning culminated in a decision by theCommission to seek a full-time advisor on town planning. Successfulpetitions to hire British planning expert, Thomas Adams, came from theCMA, the Canadian Public Health Association, the Order of the Daughtersof the Empire, the National Council of Women, the Board of Trade ofHamilton and numerous charities. Adams was a noted planner associatedwith the British Garden City Movement. (26) He was a prodigious writer,editing and writing much of Conservation of Life, and altogetherpublishing 139 articles from 1914-21 and a major book, Rural Planningand Development: A Study of Rural Conditions and Problems in Canada,that drew national and international acclaim. (27) Under the auspices ofthe Commission, Adams assisted in the creation of national and localCivic Improvement Leagues and successfully promoted the establishment ofa national town planning organization, the Town Planning Institute ofCanada. (28) Most of the provincial planning legislation of the periodwas either written or aided by Adams; he worked as a consultant to theOntario Housing Commission and was instrumental in planning designs forthe Halifax Reconstruction Commission and the Federal Housing program of1918. (29) The Commission, under Adams's guidance, played a centralrole in providing ideological legitimation for the emerging theory andpractice of town planning and helped promulgate To officially announce, to publish, to make known to the public; to formally announce a statute or a decision by a court. its merits to a widenetwork of reformers, academics and politicians. The efficiency movement, exemplified in the sphere of productionrelations by scientific management guru Frederick Taylor, was alive andwell in Canada in municipal government and social welfare reform and wascentral to Adams's views on the housing question. "This is anage in which `efficiency' is a great catchword," A.G. Dalzell,a former assistant to Adams, outlined in a 1920 speech to real estateagents. "Industrial efficiency, commercial efficiency, nationalefficiency and personal efficiency are terms constantly before us."(30) The war provided a solid impetus for emphasizing efficient homelife. "As a result of the past three years experience," Adamsnoted in 1918, "we have been made to see very clearly the extent towhich the output of war industries and the production of food dependsnot only on the organization of labour but also on the conditions underwhich the labourer lives." (31) The Hydrostone scheme in Halifaxwas designed with this in mind: "To properly house the worker, togive him air space and light, pure water, and efficient means oftransportation to his work, is merely exercising enlightenedself-interest Enlightened self-interest is a philosophy in ethics which states that persons who act to further the interests of others (or the interests of the group or groups to which they belong), ultimately serve their own self-interest. in the interests of our industries - for labour is themost costly and important factor in production, although it isfrequently least considered." (32) The ambitious post-war drive for social and economic reconstruction Economic Reconstruction refers to a process for creating a proactive vision of economic change. The basic idea is that problems in the economy such as deindustrialization, environmental decay, outsourcing, industrial incompetence, poverty and addiction to a permanent war economy punctuated the reform community's trepidation over intensifiedsocial conflicts. The National Industrial Conference (1919) and theRoyal Commission on Industrial Relations The Commission on Industrial Relations (Also known as the Walsh Report)[1] was a commission created by the US Congress on August 23, 1912. The commission studied work conditions throughout the industrial United States between 1912-1915. (1919) both highlighted poordwelling conditions as one of the chief causes of the working-classupheaval and recommended immediate measures to tackle the problem. CMAPresident Thomas Rodens warned his fellow manufacturers about theurgency of housing reform in 1918, stressing "it was that conditionthat brought about the downfall of Russia, the indifference of theguiding class to these conditions." (33) By war's end, housingreform was no longer considered a local issue of concern only to thepoor but rather was seen as a major obstacle to the advancement of aindustrial nation. (34) In his initial report to the Housing Committeeof the Federal Cabinet in November 1918, Adams underscored the criticaldemand for state intervention in the housing sphere: "We cannothave these things [social peace] if we hold hard to antiquated notionsregarding the license to use the rights of property to the injury ofmankind. Property has duties as well as rights." (35)Co-partnership schemes, a model of housing provision in which privateinvestors and tenants would buy shares in a housing company, employingthe combined revenue to build houses, would encourage cooperation anddissuade "socialistic so��cial��is��tic?adj.Of, advocating, or tending toward socialism.social��is ideas." (36) Uppermost in Adams'smind was the belief that the contending classes could be broughttogether in a cooperative alliance for collective national preservation. Recourse to nationalism proved to be a helpful means of bluntingthe bruising social conflicts of the war period. As a ruling myth,nationalism strived to eclipse other social divisions, especially class,by positing an overarching national identity. Along with immigration immigration,entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. controls, social policies proved a particularly convenient means ofshaping the contours of the `nation.' Social policies worked todefine the boundaries of the `national' working class bysanctioning a specific model of class structure - what constitutes aproper `citizen' - and by attempting to mould social relationswithin the nation - what constitutes the proper behaviour of theseofficially defined citizens. (37) The discourse of housing improvement,along with its counterparts in other areas of social policy, assisted incultivating the popular fiction of Anglo-supremacy and spreading theracist message that `outsiders' were to blame for thecountry's problems. The threat of `race suicide' loomed large in the outlook ofhousing reformers as it did in all the social improvement campaigns ofthe era. (38) It was believed that the miserable health of the workingclass, most visibly demonstrated in the high failure rates in militarymedical inspections and the large-scale `infiltration' ofnon-British immigrants, would jeopardize the future of the Anglo-Saxon`race'. Neither was there disagreement that the physical, mentaland moral state of the `race' faced grave danger Grave Danger is the name of the last two episodes in the of the popular American crime drama , which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada. This two parter was directed by Quentin Tarantino and was aired on May 19, 2005. unless speedyaction was taken. W. Struthers, a prominent public health official,expressed reformers' concerns succinctly: "Poor housingconditions, lack of light and ventilation, uncleanliness, ignorance ofproper care of the body and of the laws of health, unwholesome andimproper food and drink, the prevalence of venereal venereal/ve��ne��re��al/ (ve-ner��e-al) due to or propagated by sexual intercourse. ve��ne��re��aladj.1. Transmitted by sexual intercourse.2. and other diseasesare rapidly producing a degenerate race." (39) Charles Hodgettsargued that temporary shacktowns on the margins of urban areas werebecoming the "overcrowded permanent homes of a foreign population -hot beds of parastic and communicable diseases and breeders of vice andinequity." (40) Such bigotry was extended to working-class Britishand American immigrants as well, revealing the new-found view that racedegeneration stemmed partly from urban-industrial life. Thedistinguished psychiatrist C.K. Clarke regarded them as "failuresat home, and are often so because of congenital defects. Their progenymay rise above their own level, but they never cease to suffer fromtheir misfortunes of birth." (41) It was not the wretched housingconditions that immigrant workers had to endure that was isolated as theproblem, but rather the immmigrants themselves. The construction of race was developed in relation to externaleconomic and political pressures as well as internal conflicts. In anera of competing imperialisms, the menace posed by detrimental livingconditions on economic and military capacity caused great apprehensionamong social commentators and policy makers. In an article entitled"Defective Children" Dr. Helen MacMurchy, a noted Ontariopaediatrician and leading eugenicist eu��gen��i��cist? also eu��gen��istn.An advocate of or a specialist in eugenics. , favourably cited British PrimeMinister Lloyd George's admonition Any formal verbal statement made during a trial by a judge to advise and caution the jury on their duty as jurors, on the admissibility or nonadmissibility of evidence, or on the purpose for which any evidence admitted may be considered by them. that "You cannot have an A1army on a C3 population." (42) Detailing the impressive housingschemes in the German city of Ulm, Noulan Cauchon, future president ofthe Town Planning Institute of Canada, argued that Canada needed to meetthe challenge of the enemy: "Such is the efficiency of the enemywhom we will have to fight industrially after the war and reveals one ofthe reasons why he can compete so successfully -- wherein he has learnedto live efficiently and cheaply." (43) The influence of `socialimperialism', (44) in which social reform ideas were thoroughlypermeated with imperialist assumptions, was striking. Since the home was regarded as the basic unit of socialorganization, it was chosen as the chief site in the battle for`Canadianization.' Racial and ethnic assumptions intersected withthe dominant views of woman's role as nurturer of the `race.'Henry Vivian spoke to a receptive Calgary audience, contending that:"the future of our Empire, the future of our race depends upon thepreservation of those conditions that make for the retention and thestrength of that individuality, and upon that our future really exists.The individual home, the individual family, the individual brought up inhome, and the association of home life -- upon that all our successdepends." (45) "There is no more sacred word in the Englishlanguage English language,member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. than `Home'," Dr Charles Hastings Charles Hastings can meanCharles John Colwell Orr Hastings, a Canadian obstetrician and public health pioneer (1856 – 1931)orCharles Hastings (founder of the British Medical Association) (1794 – 1866) , Toronto'sMedical Officer of Health articulated, "and on the retaining of thesacredness and significance of our homes depends the future of ourmunicipality and our Nation." (46) Home life was to be improved through programs directed atregulating the domestic labour of working-class and immigrant women,focusing on child-raising and household work. To social imperialists, asAnna Davin has shown, "population was power" (47) somotherhood needed to be placed on a scientific basis to ensure thecontinuance of the Anglo-Saxon race and to bring unhealthy immigrants upto scratch. If Taylorism pledged to increase efficiency in the labourprocess, domestic science vowed to `modernize' daily home life. Aproperly kept, compact family home fitted with the increasingly commonamenities of electric lighting, water, cooking appliances and indoortoilets offered a certain future, free from the vagaries of cramped,unsanitary un��san��i��tar��yadj.Not sanitary. lodgings. (48) It is likely that many reformers weremotivated by genuine personal consideration for the casualties ofindustrial capitalism. But altruistic concerns are overshadowed by thevital effort to create a stable family unit comprised of fit andcomplacent workers which guaranteed the protection of the nation. In tandem Adv. 1. in tandem - one behind the other; "ride tandem on a bicycle built for two"; "riding horses down the path in tandem"tandem with the crude procedures of house inspections andcondemnations, the emerging public health education project was utilizedto instill in��stillv.To pour in drop by drop.instil��lation n. the values of thriftiness, efficiency and`Canadianness'. In 1911, housekeepers were hired by the IndustrialHygiene and Housing Division of the Toronto public health department toprovide advice on "cleanliness, sanitation and Canadian methods ofhousekeeping." (49) Speaking of the Ward, Toronto's`notorious' immigrant slum, Joseph Howes of the Bureau of MunicipalResearch, recommended that since the "majority of the residents areusually foreigners, often not speaking our language, not fullyunderstanding our laws, and frequently without the Anglo-Saxon ideas ofsanitation" the reform effort should be concentrated on the"the process of education and Canadianization." (50) With thisattitude in mind, Charles Hastings sent out women sanitary inspectors togo into immigrant's houses to "teach them how to clean up andkeep clean their homes and environments...Many of these people, byreason of birth and environments, have neither the moral stamina or theintellect to rid themselves of their vices and shortcomings." (51)The process of racial `degeneration' was believed to be besttackled by `Canadianizing' housewives in order to equip familieswith the tools of citizenship needed to build a sound nation. The favoured tenure choice in the project of protecting thesanctity of the family and nation was the single-family dwelling. Allmunicipalities, Charles Hastings said, "must have a keen sense ofthe social and national significance of the term `home' as being ofone-family dwellings." (52) Reformers had a keen sense of thebenefits of the single-family dwelling since it promised to upholdstable family life in a manner consistent with the market economy. Thepromotion of house plans drafted to rationalize and improve women'sdomestic labour served a similar purpose and were evident in the housingdesigns of the co-partnership and government-sponsored ventures of theperiod. The proper single-family dwelling included well-designedfacilities for domestic labour and suitable moral content in designthrough clearly-defined thresholds between bedrooms and between housesto ensure privacy. The social gravity of atomized family and domesticlife in bourgeois reform thought was striking. (53) Housing improvementadvocates joined social workers and maternal feminists to intervene infamily life in order to maintain the family unit and protect motherhood,domesticity, children and, by extension, the nation. The housing innovations that womens' organizations urgedcentred on women's `instinctive' role as mother and housewife.Mrs. Campbell Maclvor of the Women's Party Women's Party is the name of several political parties: Women's Party (Belarus) Women's Party (Greenland) Women's Party (Israel) Women's Party (Japan) Josei-tō Women's Party (Poland) Women's Party (UK) petitioned the Ontariogovernment in 1918 boldly contesting that: "Men have been tellingus for years that women's place is in the home and now they haveappointed a Housing Committee which is sitting up at the ParliamentBuildings Parliament Buildings may refer to: Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland) (Stormont) Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Canada British Columbia Parliament Buildings Parliament Buildings can refer to the following places: and there's not a woman on it." (54) MarjorieMacMurchy of the Canadian Reconstruction Association, accentuated"the need for women's brains and experiences in planninghomes." (55) The Ontario Woman Citizen's Association wrote toOntario premier Hearst demanding a part to play in housing policy,contending that: "It seems only reasonable that those who are bynature and experience best qualified to advise on these points should beempowered to give other women the benefit of their wisdom at firsthand." (56) The ideology of maternal feminism informed thepolitical culture of the women's movement women's movement:see feminism; woman suffrage. women's movementDiverse social movement, largely based in the U.S., seeking equal rights and opportunities for women in their economic activities, personal lives, and politics. and their housing reformagenda as they aimed to extend the boundaries of women's sphere tothe enlarged realm of `social housekeeper.' Despite the decline of the reform impulse in the 1920s, housingreformers could point to the First World War era as a catalyst whichsparked the first comprehensive planning "Comprehensive Plan" is a term used by land use planners to describe a set of goals and policies developed by a municipality to accommodate future growth. Typically the comprehensive plan will look at estimated growth within a specific time period, for example, 20 years. legislation, severalco-partnership housing ventures and a national housing program.Moreover, the ideological and political precedents had been set for therecognition of the necessity of state intervention in housing provision.While some state involvement in the housing sphere was accepted, few ofthe intellectuals and philanthropists advocating housing progress sawthe need to directly contradict the private market. The concept of theright to decent housing, whatever the fluctuations of the market, wouldhave to await the crucial decade of the 1930s. Fewer still believed thatcapitalist society itself was responsible for the lack of decent shelteropportunities. It would take the most devastating economic crisis in thehistory of world capitalism and changing political conditions to advancebeyond this limited outlook. The Triumph of the Professional Houser: Housing Reform in the1930s-40s Just as the economic and social uncertainty of the First World Warmotivated a push for scientific competency in housing analysis tosupersede To obliterate, replace, make void, or useless.Supersede means to take the place of, as by reason of superior worth or right. A recently enacted statute that repeals an older law is said to supersede the prior legislation. the impressionistic im��pres��sion��is��tic?adj.1. Of, relating to, or practicing impressionism.2. Of, relating to, or predicated on impression as opposed to reason or fact: impressionistic memories of early childhood. views of amateur reformers, so too did thestormy ordeal of the depression and Second World War years clinch theprofessional and scientific status of proponents of housing advancement.Reflecting wider developments in the social sciences, housing reformersfound an attentive audience in government circles and universitiesfounded academic positions in the field of urban studies. Throughout the1930s-40s, there was a plethora of reports, commissions and surveys atall levels of government and academia dealing with the housing question.Wartime mobilization and the fear of economic depression and socialunrest after the war precipitated significant legislative and regulatoryinterventions in housing and sustained ventures in government housingprovision. (57) Much of the reform discourse was interwoven in��ter��weave?v. in��ter��wove , in��ter��wo��ven , inter��weav��ing, inter��weavesv.tr.1. To weave together.2. To blend together; intermix.v.intr. with socialdemocratic viewpoints, embracing a conviction that governments shouldpermanently intervene through technocratic planning within thecapitalist system to ensure that decent housing was available to allpeople. But there were decidedly conventional solutions proposed to thequestion of women's role in the housing sphere and assumptions ofmoral respectability stood alongside deeper critiques of the system. The 1930s marked a coming of age of the new social sciences asacademics and policy makers were given renewed incentive to applypractical scientific knowledge to social problems because of the abjectfailure of governments to solve the economic crisis. Social scientistsskilfully cultivated support from the civil service and businesscommunity, arguing that social science was able to meet the challenge ofsocial and economic adversity and thereby thwart radical challenges tothe system. (58) They forcefully asserted that "laissez-faire'policies were anachronistic a��nach��ro��nism?n.1. The representation of someone as existing or something as happening in other than chronological, proper, or historical order.2. in the context of a complex, interdependentindustrial economy. A cooperative relationship between government,business and academia hinged on sensible intervention in the workings ofthe market was therefore deemed essential to remedy the crisis. Social democracy found intellectual expression in the League forSocial Reconstruction The League for Social Reconstruction was a circle of Canadian socialist intellectuals formed in 1931 by academics advocating radical social and economic reforms and political education as a response to the Great Depression.Its leading members were F.R. (LSR 1. (networking) LSR - Label Switching Router.2. (operating system) LSR - Local Shared Resources. ), an eclectic group of intellectualsassociated with the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF CCFabbr.Cooperative Commonwealth Federation of Canada ). TheLSR's platform combined redistributive economic policies under therubric RUBRIC, civil law. The title or inscription of any law or statute, because the copyists formerly drew and painted the title of laws and statutes rubro colore, in red letters. Ayl. Pand. B. 1, t. 8; Diet. do Juris. h.t. of technocratic central planning with social policies intended todeliver essential services for victims of the market economy. The Leagueworried that the unchecked profit motive of monopoly capitalism roderoughshod over stable family life and overall social and economicprogress. (59) The most renowned housing reformers of the era, HarryCassidy Harry Cassidy (1900 - 1951) was a Canadian academic, social reformer, civil servant and, briefly, a politician.Cassidy was a pioneer in the field of social work. He was the founding dean of the School of Social Welfare at University of California, Berkeley in the early , Leonard Marsh and Humphrey Carver were all members of the LSRand theories of state-directed economic regeneration found a largeraudience in liberal political circles. The inclusion of a program for housing progress in the LSR'smanifesto, Social Planning For Canada, attests to the importance housingwas accorded in the grander schemes of social democratic modernization.Written by Humphrey Carver, a Toronto architect and later a key officialin the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation, it stuck to theLSR's general critique of the "unrestrained system ofprofit-making enterprise" in capitalism, encouraging the massproduction of low-cost rental units for the working class to improvework habits and uplift family life. The capitalist, Carver chastized,"is ready enough to scrap obsolete machinery in his plant [but] isnot interested in the domestic equipment of his employees." (60)The only solution was to reject the principles of "privateprofit" and "remunerative investment" by dispensingdirect grants for public housing projects. (61) The existing buildingindustry was to remain the chief instrument of this program, but ifprivate contractors were found to be unwilling nationalization nationalization,acquisition and operation by a country of business enterprises formerly owned and operated by private individuals or corporations. State or local authorities have traditionally taken private property for such public purposes as the construction of of thebuilding industry was threatened. The age-old problem of exorbitant landcosts and speculation was to be dealt with in much the same way asThomas Adams's proposals during the First World War: through acomprehensive system of urban and industrial planning, under the centralcoordination of a Federal Housing and Town Planning Authority. UnlikeAdams, however, Carver was amenable to using the full power of aninterventionist government to expropriate ex��pro��pri��ate?tr.v. ex��pro��pri��at��ed, ex��pro��pri��at��ing, ex��pro��pri��ates1. To deprive of possession: expropriated the property owners who lived in the path of the new highway. slum lands for public housingventures. (62) The concept of technical expertise was also fully extended toinclude the standardization of building production methods andmaterials. Carver recognized the obstacles that inefficient constructionprocesses posed for proper dwelling conditions: "...it is necessary to apply to the design and construction ofhomes the same scientific rationalization that has been applied, forinstance, to automobile plants; to reduce the costs of fabrication fabrication (fab´rikā´shn),n the construction or making of a restoration. andassembly so that modern living conditions may become the normalpossession of every householder." (63) In a 1948 study sponsored byCMHC CMHCcommunity mental health center. , Carver suggested that governments should take an active role inthe formation of a large-scale building industry to expeditestandardization, reduce labour costs and generally smooth out thebuilding labour process to allow cheap and competent dwellingconstruction. (64) Carver and his contemporaries spurned spurn?v. spurned, spurn��ing, spurnsv.tr.1. To reject disdainfully or contemptuously; scorn. See Synonyms at refuse1.2. To kick at or tread on disdainfully.v. the predominantviews on home ownership promotion espoused by liberal policy makers, butshared the opinion that dwelling forms should be refined throughrationalized designs in order to facilitate mass production andconsumption standards. (65) The brutal misery of the 1930s induced governments to continue thetradition of civic surveys established by the Social Service Congressearlier in the century. Extensive studies of Halifax, Hamilton, Ottawa,Winnipeg, Montreal and Toronto in the early 1930s showed a proliferationof critical slum conditions and rampant social distress. Theground-breaking Toronto study, known as the Bruce Report The Bruce Report is the commonly given name to two reports of the Glasgow Corporation (the former local authority area for the Scottish city), the First Planning Report, which was published in the closing stages of the Second World War in March, 1945 and the , was considereda milestone in the movement for housing betterment. Written byUniversity of Toronto professors, Harry Cassidy and Eric Arthur Eric Ross Arthur, C.C. (July 1, 1898 – November 1, 1982) was a Canadian architect, writer and educator.Born in Dunedin, New Zealand and educated in England, he served in World War I with the New Zealand Rifle Brigade. , itutilized precise survey techniques and identified the heavily skeweddistribution Skewed distributionProbability distribution in which an unequal number of observations lie below (negative skew) or above (positive skew) the mean. of income, high unemployment and anarchic land developmentas the main culprits of slum housing. A review of the Report by LeonardMarsh, a McGill economist who later gained fame as a key player in thegovernment's post-war reconstruction plans, lauded the analyticaldepth of the study and its proposed solutions. Marsh explicitlyemphasized the relation between income distribution, consumer demand forshelter and general patterns of economic development and endorsed theauthor's call for a National Housing Commission to oversee andimplement reform measures. (66) In the depths of economic crisis, expertopinion reiterated once again that housing was a national concern. The establishment of an informal housing advocacy group to followup the recommendations of the Bruce Report speaks to publichousers' recognition of the importance of merging grass roots grass rootspl.n. (used with a sing. or pl. verb)1. People or society at a local level rather than at the center of major political activity. Often used with the.2. The groundwork or source of something. activism with conventional lobbying to spur action on the public housingfront. A drop-in housing centre was set up on the University of Torontocampus "to gain community interest and support" for publicaction in slum clearance slum clearance:see housing; city planning. , public housing and centralized planning. Anumber of Toronto academics, architects and reform-minded politiciansused this forum to discuss and debate housing betterment and eventuallythe group organized two national conferences in 1939 which criticizedthe federal government's Dominion Housing Act (1938). A sense of balanced community life, deep-seated trust in theefficacy of centralized intervention and citizen participation formedkey planks of the public housers' platform. Carver believed thatefficient community planning would "promote loyalty to localgovernment, churches, recreation centres, institutions." (67) TheCitizen's Planning and Housing Association (CPHA CPHA Canadian Public Health AssociationCPhA Canadian Pharmacists AssociationCPhA California Pharmacists AssociationCPHA Clock PhaseCPHA Citizens Planning and Housing AssociationCPHA California Public Health Association ), formed duringthe war to promote subsidized rental housing in Toronto, endeavoured toelevate citizen participation in the reform process through continuouspropaganda and lobbying of government officials. Regent Park Coordinates: Alternate uses: Regent's Park (disambiguation)Regent Park is a neighbourhood located in downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. North, thefirst full-fledged public housing project in Canada, was the successfulconclusion of what Carver called the CPHA's "sustainedevangelistic effort..." (68) Despite their reservations about theeventual outcome of the project, the new breed of idealistic publichousers, termed "Citizens in Action" by Albert Rose Albert Rose (New York City, 30 March 1910 %ndash; 26 July 1990) was an American physicist, who made major contributions to TV camera tubes such as the Orthicon, Image Orthicon, and Vidicon. []He received an A.B. degree and a Ph.D. , a mainbacker of Regent Park, considered their exertions an eminently patrioticcontribution to national democratic life. (69) Indeed, Harry Cassidy,who became Professor of Social Welfare at the University of California,Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley is a public research university located in Berkeley, California, United States. Commonly referred to as UC Berkeley, Berkeley and Cal and Humphrey Carver saw social welfare measures such as publichousing as a bulwark against Fascism and class conflict. (70) The necessity of dealing with the widespread slum conditions foundin civic investigations brought out the crudely environmentalist environmentalista person with an interest and knowledge about the interaction of humans and animals with the environment. streakin 1930-40s planning ideology. Direct slum elimination was bandied aboutby public health officials decades earlier, but the political will forcomprehensive action was not yet paramount. The genuine social concernsof most planners differed from the routine insensitivity of governmentofficials. Yet callous urban renewal strategies were the preferredinitial course of action in public housers' strategy since theythought that the removal of slums would stimulate the development ofpublic housing projects by freeding up cheap land for municipal housingauthorities. (71) Furthermore, it was held that the elimination of slumdwellings would mitigate the pathology of slum areas. It would not do,Humphrey Carver contended, to simply renovate the affected area. Onlyslum elimination integrated with a comprehensive approach to cityplanning would suffice: "It is as unwise as ever it was to put newwine into old bottles; a repaired slum still remains a slum." (72)Analysis of slum areas was still confined to narrow sociologicalanalyses of the `pathological imperative,' a presumption whichconnected social `deviance', crime, physical degeneration offacilities and immorality to slum dwellers. The repressive aspects ofthe technocratic initiative thus went hand-in-glove with the creed thatevery citizen had a right to decent housing. If the professional housers more or less clearly discerned classdivisions in the housing question, they certainly retained restrictiveviews of women's proper social role, especially in the domesticsphere. In the name of the preservation and bolstering of the family,reformers paid particular attention to domestic architecture.Simplicity, efficiency and economy were the key words in the arrangementof domestic environment as well as external housing form. As Carver putit in Social Planning For Canada: "the mechanization mechanizationUse of machines, either wholly or in part, to replace human or animal labour. Unlike automation, which may not depend at all on a human operator, mechanization requires human participation to provide information or instruction. of householdequipment and the economy of bedroom space to be cleaned would help toliberate the housewife from the monotonous servitude servitudeIn property law, a right by which property owned by one person is subject to a specified use or enjoyment by another. Servitudes allow people to create stable long-term arrangements for a wide variety of purposes, including shared land uses; maintaining the of domestic choresand allow her to develop family life in more fruitful directions."(73) Albert Rose seconded Carver's optimism, lauding the RegentPark scheme for raising "maternal efficiency." (74) It isnoteworthy that when discussing the importance of making specialprovisions for `untypical Adj. 1. untypical - not representative of a group, class, or type; "a group that is atypical of the target audience"; "a class of atypical mosses"; "atypical behavior is not the accepted type of response that we expect from children"atypical families' in public housing, Eric Arthur,a Toronto architecture professor and member of the federalgovernment's Subcommittee on Housing and Community Planning,referred to families with large numbers of children rather than other`untypical families' such as those led by sole support parents.(75) The proposed model of social relations within the home were stillhinged on a strict notion of nuclear family life, delimiting individualaspirations, especially those of women. If women were mentioned at alloutside the strict realm of family life it was to champion their skillsas potential housing estate managers which called for a combination of"social worker and business manager," (76) pointing to thecommon judgment that women's `natural' home management skillsshould be applied to the community as a whole to ensure the smoothfunctioning of society. As Ruth Roach Ruth Roach, later Ruth Roach Salmon, was a professional bronc rider, and world champion rodeo performer. Her 24-year career began in 1914 and ended in 1938, when she retired from the rodeo and started a ranching business in Nocona, Texas, with her husband, Fred Salmon. Pierson and Margaret Hobbs havedemonstrated in their study of the Home Improvement Plan, instituted bythe federal government in 1936 to `upgrade' housekeeping anddwelling forms, all but a small minority of socialist observers acceptedassumptions of women's traditional role as nurturer of sturdyfamily life. (77) A lecture series on town planning and housing instituted by theUniversity of Toronto's School of Social Work in 1944 furnishes anilluminating glimpse of the accumulated experience of the 1930-40shousing reform movement. In a survey of Canada's housing policyhistory, Leonard Marsh, now Executive Secretary of the federalgovernment's Committee of Reconstruction and author of theinfluential 1943 government study Report on Social Security (78) whichprovided the intellectual framework for the post-war Canadian welfarestate, presented the most articulate expression of the attitude thatsustained government commitment was necessary for superior shelterprovision. Favourably quoting American houser, Catherine Bauer, on theprogressive social vision of Marx, William Morris Noun 1. William Morris - English poet and craftsman (1834-1896)Morris , and Roosevelt'sNew Deal, Marsh, while no Marxist, insisted that "Housing cannot beregarded as an isolated or departmentalized field, but only as a basicpart of the modern social environment, and also as a product of all thesocial forces at work." (79) While he separated economic needs andsocial criteria in the housing policy realm, he underscored theconnection between employment, income distribution and decent shelteropportunities -- all necessary for the collective vitality of thenation. Eric Arthur similarly emphasized the need for a comprehensive andintegrated public housing plan. Reflecting his personal knowledge andadmiration of the New Deal housing projects in the United States, hesuggested that public housing schemes should include community centres,health clinics and laundries under the close supervision of well-trainedhousing managers. (80) Public housing provision could only successfullyproceed if it was integrated with detailed town planning and communityinfrastructure development. In contrast to early twentieth centuryreform currents, the strict regulatory thrust was tempered by socialdemocratic reformers' support for citizen participation andinclusive community development schemes. (81) Nevertheless, an attemptto instill in project dwellers a sense of middleclass morality andsocial order was evident. Arthur, while believing in the "goodnessand decency" of low-income tenants, endorsed the view of anAmerican public housing manager that tenants could not be entrusted tocare for lawns in housing estates. (82) Combining confidence in thebenefits of well-planned public dwelling provision with a clear accenton the regulation of inhabitants, wartime reform thought would presagethe dominant thrust of post-war social housing practices. The growth of the state bureaucracy in the Second World War eraassured reformers that their special capabilities had an important placein modern society. By employing the methodological insights of thesocial sciences and recognizing the necessity of probing deeper into thesystem itself, they identified inequities of income distribution as oneof the main causes of the lack of adequate shelter provision. Only acomprehensive policy of income maintenance and social policy measureswithin the parameters of an permanently interventionist government couldhope to secure decent housing for all. Yet existing social divisionswere tacitly sanctioned and by reducing essentially political questionsto the technical exigencies of science, the common ideologicalconviction that there were technical solutions to profound social andeconomic problems was fortified fortified (fôrt´fīd),adj containing additives more potent than the principal ingredient. . (83) Conclusion The uneven evolution of housing reform from the amateurish dabblingof philanthropic businessmen to the statistically-based inquiries ofuniversity trained economists spanned three crucial decades in thegrowth of the capitalist social order and the modern state. Despiteoperating strictly within the confines of capitalism, housing reformersnevertheless believed that their suggestions for social advancementtranscended class boundaries, working for the greater benefit of thecommunity. Oblivious to the contradiction in this formulation between anall-embracing `community' and a class divided society, reformersbelieved that moderate amendments in the housing sphere were essentialin the struggle for economic modernization and social harmony. To ananxious middle class in a time of political uncertainty, the push forindustrial efficiency, moral righteousness and social stability pledgedto ameliorate the urban crisis by providing suitable shelter forworkers, striving to shape a stable and productive workforce. Thescientific uplifting of home life on `Canadian' lines throughvarious state-directed reform measures promised to check urbandeterioration and reinforce the nation. In this way, housing reformers,in concert with the larger social reform effort, occupied a significantplace in the project of nation-bulding by helping shape a healthy,productive and divided workforce. Acknowledgments I wish to thank Adam Givertz, Bryan Palmer, conferenceparticipants, anonymous referees and the editors for helpful comments onearlier drafts of this paper and the Ontario Graduate Scholarship andthe Social Science and Humanities Research Council Doctoral Fellowshipfor financial aid in researching and writing this paper. (1) . Paraphrase of Vivian's Speech in "The Urgency ofthe Housing Problem in the Province of Quebec," Conservation ofLife, (hereafter COL), (January 1919): 4. (2) . Antonio Gramsci, "Some Aspects of the SexualQuestion," in David Forgacs ed., The Gramsci Reader (London:Lawrence and Wishart British publishing company associated with the Communist Party of Great Britain, formed through the merger of Martin Lawrence, the Communist Party's press and Wishart Ltd, a family-owned liberal and anti-fascist publisher. External linksAbout Lawrence and Wishart 1988), 281,296. See also David Harvey, "Labor,Capital, and Class Struggle Around the Built Environment in AdvancedCapitalist Societies," in Kevin Cox ed., Urbanization and Conflictin Market Societies (Chicago: Maaroufa Press 1978), 23. On thecomplexity of the reform movement's response to urban problems seePeter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of UrbanPlanning and Design in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Basil Blackwell1988), 5, 44. (3) . For a bibliography of housing reform literature in this earlyperiod see J. David Hulchanski, Canadian Town Planning, 1900-1930 AHistorical Bibliography, Volume II, Housing (Toronto: Centre for Urbanand Community Studies, University of Toronto 1978). (4) . Paul Rutherford, "Tomorrow's Metropolis: The UrbanReform Movement in Canada, 1880-1920," in G. Stelter and A.Artibise eds., The Canadian City: essays in urban history (Toronto:McClelland and Stewart 1977), 370-371. For the focus on sanitaryconditions in the European housing reform movement see Nicholas Bullockand James Reid, The Movement for Housing Reform in Germany and France,1840-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). 1985). (5) . Alan Sears, "Immigration Controls as Social Policy: TheCase of Canadian Medical Inspection, 1900-1920," Studies inPolitical Economy, No. 33 (Autumn 1990): 105-106, n.5. (6) . J.J. Kelso, "Can slums be abolished or must we continueto pay the penalty?" (Toronto,nd.) in Paul Rutherford ed., Savingthe Canadian City: the first phase 1880-1920, an anthology of earlyarticles on urban reform (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1974),166. For the use of metaphors of disease to describe the city in Europesee Hall, Cities of Tomorrow, 35. (7) . Rutherford, "Tomorrow's Metropolis," 371. Foran interpretation that stresses the "moulding of subjectivity"through moral reform see Marianna Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap andWater, Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885-1925 (Toronto: McClellandand Stewart 1991). (8) . Toronto Daily News, 8 November 1906. See as well Maria,"Forced to Live with Crime and City Lands are Vacant" TorontoGlobe, 2 December 1906. (9) . Thomas Roden, "The Housing of Workmen," IndustrialCanada, (March 1907): 654. (10) . Ibid., (August 1911): 52. (11) . Kelso, "Can slums be abolished...," 167. (12) . "The Labor Question and Women's Work and ItsRelation to `Home Life"' in Ramsay Cook and Wendy Mitchinsoneds., The Proper Sphere, Women's Place in Canadian Society(Toronto: Oxford University Press 1976), 153. For a thorough analysisconsult Veronica Strong-Boag, The New Day Recalled, Lives of Girls andWomen in English Canada, 1919-1939 (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman 1988),Chapter 4. (13) . Herbert Ames, The City Below the Hill (1897; repr. Toronto:University of Toronto Press 1972), 114. (14) . Ibid., 75. (15) . Ibid., 37. (16) . Quoted in R.C. Brown and Ramsay Cook, Canada 1896-1921 ANation Transformed (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1974), 294. Also seeRichard Allen, The Social Passion, Religion and Social Reform in Canada,1914-1928 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1973). On the transitionfrom religiously based morality to secularized social reform see RamsayCook, The Regenerators, Social Criticism in Late Victorian EnglishCanada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1985), 5,169,231. (17) . Allen, The Social Passion, 12.24. (18) . For the more developed "crisis of intellectualauthority" in the American case that eventually led to thedominance of secularized social science see Thomas Haskell, TheEmergence of Professional Social Science (Urbana: University of IllinoisPress The University of Illinois Press (UIP), is a major American university press and part of the University of Illinois. OverviewAccording to the UIP's website: 1977), vi-viii, 234-255. (19) . David Ward, "The progressives and the urban question:British and American Responses to the inner city slums, 1880-1920,"Transactions, Institute of British Geographers 9 (1984): 303. (20) . Industrial Canada, (May 1912): 3. (21) . On this point, note Doug Owram, The Government Generation,Canadian Intellectuals and the State, 1900-1945 (Toronto: University ofToronto Press 1986), 57. (22) . "Report of the Committee on Press and Co-OperatingOrganizations," Commission of Conservation Annual Meeting (1917)(hereafter COC See chip on chip. Annual Meeting), 277. (23) . "The Commission of Conservation," Saturday Night(January 1921): 9. (24) . Journal of the Town Planning Institute of Canada,(June-August 1921): 1. (25) . Martin Daunton, House and Home in the Victorian City(London: Edward Arnold 1983), 5. For Canada, see Walter Van Nus,"The Fate of City Beautiful Thought in Canada, 1893-1930," inStelter and Artibise eds., The Canadian City and Ian Gunton, "TheIdeas and Policies of the Canadian Planning Profession, 1909-1931,"in G. Stelter and A. Artibise eds. The Usable Urban Past CarletonLibrary No. 119 (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada Macmillan of Canada was a Canadian publishing house.The company was founded in 1905 as the Canadian arm of the English publisher Macmillan. At that time it was known as the "Macmillan Company of Canada Ltd. with the Institute ofCanadian Studies, Carleton University 1979), 181. (26) . Stelter and Artibise, "Conservation planning," 24.Note also Michael Simpson, Thomas Adams and the Modern Planning Movement(London: Mansell 1985). (27) . D.J. Hall, Clifford Sifton, Vol.2, (Vancouver: University ofBritish Columbia Press The University of British Columbia Press is a university press that is part of the University of British Columbia. It was established in 1971. External linksUniversity of British Columbia Press 1985), 258. For Adams's internationalreputation see Stelter and Artibise, "Conservation Planning,"25. (28) . On the Leagues, see Civic Improvement League, Report ofPreliminary Conference held under the Auspices of the Commission ofConservation (Ottawa: Commission of Conservation 1915) and CivicImprovement, Report of a Conference held In Co-operation with theCommission of Conservation (Ottawa: Commission of Conservation 1916). (29) . A perusal of the Annual Reports of the Commission and COLindicates that Adams had a vast sphere of influence. See also OivaSaarinen, "The Influence of Thomas Adams and the British New TownMovement in the Planning of Canadian Resource Communities," inStelter and Artibise, eds., The Usable Urban Past, 273. (30) . Town Planning and Conservation of Life (hereafter TPCL),(July- September 1920): 66. (31) . "The Housing Problem and Production," COL (July1918): 49. (32) . Adams, "Civic and Social Questions in Canada,"COL, (April-June 1916): 54-55. While this paper is not directlyconcerned with the responses of the "clients" of housingreform it is important to note that reform schemes were often resistedat some level by workers. In the Hydrostone case, for instance, someformer residents of the area protested the reordering of theneighbourhood along top-down reform lines. See John Weaver,"Reconstruction of the Richmond District in Halifax: A CanadianEpisode in Public Housing and Town Planning, 1918-1921," PlanCanada 6 (March 1976):36-47. For a similar response in the case of theToronto Housing Company scheme see my article "This is not acompany; it is a cause': Class, Gender and the Toronto HousingCompany, 1912-1920," Urban History Review XX1 (April 1993): 88-89. (33) . Bacher, Keeping to the Private Market, 79-80. (34) . See Susanni Magri and Christian Topalov,"'Reconstruire': I'habitat populaire au lendemain dela premiere guerre mondiale, etude e��tude?n. Music1. A piece composed for the development of a specific point of technique.2. A composition featuring a point of technique but performed because of its artistic merit. comparative France, Grande-Bretagne,Italie, Etats-Unie," Archives Europeeanes de sociologie 29 (1988):319-370. (35) . "Civic and Social Questions in Canada," COL,(April-June 1916): 55. (36) . "Partner-Ownership Building Societies," COL,(October 1919): 78, 72-79. (37) . On these insights see the pioneering work by Sears, pp.91-92 and George Steinmetz, "Workers and the Welfare State inImperial Germany," International Labour and Working Class History40 (Fall 1991): 18-23. For a more detailed explication ex��pli��cate?tr.v. ex��pli��cat��ed, ex��pli��cat��ing, ex��pli��catesTo make clear the meaning of; explain. See Synonyms at explain.[Latin explic of this argumentin the Canadian case see Sean Purdy, "Building Homes, BuildingCitizens: Housing Reform and Nation Formation in Toronto,1900-1920," Canadian Historical Review (forthcoming, 1997). (38) . Consult Carol Lee Bacchi, "Race Regeneration and SocialPurity: A Study of the Social Attitudes of Canada'sEnglish-speaking Suffragists," in J.M. Bumstead ed., InterpretingCanada's Past, Vol.2, After Confederation, (Toronto: OxfordUniversity Press 1986), 192-207. (39) . W. Struthers, "The Point of View in Medical Inspectionof Schools," Public Health Journal 4/2 (1913), 67 cited in Sears,"Immigration Controls," 92. (40) . Charles Hodgetts, "Unsanitary Housing," COC AnnualMeeting, (1911), 56. (41) . C.K. Clarke, "The Defective Immigrant," COL (April1919): 37. On immigrants see as well Charles Hastings, "The ModernConception of Public Health Administration," COL, (October 1917):90. Alan Sears explains why British immigrants were not spared therancour of the social imperialists. See Sears, 92-93, 99, 107 n.5. (42) . Helen MacMurchy, "Defective Children," SocialWelfare (March 1919), On MacMurchy see Angus McClaren, Our Own MasterRace: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945, (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart1990), Chapter 2. (43) . Public Archives of Canada (hereafter PAC), Cauchon Papers,MG30 C105, Vol. 1, Address to the Rotary Club of Hamilton, August 2,1917. Admiration for Germany's brand of welfare capitalism waswidespread before and during the war. The only caveat offered was thatGermany was perhaps too rigid in the implementation of its measures. SeeDr. Charles Hodgetts, "Comments," Report of the First CanadianHousing and Town Planning Congress, Winnipeg, 15-17 July, 1912; PAC,MG28 1275, Vol. 16, Papers of the Canadian Institute of Planners The Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP) is a professional organization in Canada for those involved in Land use planning.Founded in 1919, its primary aim is "the advancement of responsible planning throughout Canada". , Reportof an Address to the Calgary City Planning Commission, Henry Vivian,"Town Planning and Housing," 9 April 1912, p. 15. (44) . See Sidney Jacobs, "Race, empire and the welfare state:council housing and racism," Critical Social Policy (1984), 11. (45) . NA, MG28 1275, Vol. 16, Papers of the Canadian Institute ofPlanners, Report of an Address to the Calgary City Planning Commission,"Town Planning and Housing," 9 April 1912, 15. (46) . City of Toronto, Minutes of the City Council, Report of theBoard of Health 1918, Appendix A, 711. (47) . Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," HistoryWorkshop 5 (1978): 10. (48) . Suzanne Mackenzie, Women and the Reproduction of LabourPower in the Industrial City: A Case Study, Working Paper No. 23,(Brighton: Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, Sussex University1980), 85. (49) . MacDougall, Activists and Advocates, 79. Marilyn Barber hasdiscovered that immigration literature intended for British domesticservants, while promoting Canada as a British country, also stressedthat British women must "learn Canadian ways." Consult"Sunny Ontario for British Girls, 1900-1930," in Jean Burneted. Looking Into My Sister's Eyes: an Exploration in Women'sHistory (Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario 1986), 63. (50) . Joseph Howes, "Housing Needs in the Ward; and theirRelation to the General Housing Situation in Ontario," SocialWelfare (October 1920): 15. (51) . Charles Hastings, "The Modern Conception of PublicHealth Administration," COL, (October 1917): 89,90. (52) . "Suggestions for the Housing Problems," IndustrialCanada, (August 1912): 66. (53) . Daunton, House and Home, 37. Nuclear family privacy issomething Lizabeth Cohen has found American reformers sought toinculcate in��cul��cate?tr.v. in��cul��cat��ed, in��cul��cat��ing, in��cul��cates1. To impress (something) upon the mind of another by frequent instruction or repetition; instill: inculcating sound principles. in working-class homes. Consult "Embellishing a Life ofLabor: An Interpretation of the Material Culture of AmericanWorking-Class Homes, 1885-1915," Journal of American Culture(1980): 759. (54) . Toronto Daily News, 26 November 1918. (55) . Review of "Better Houses for Canadians," TorontoDaily News, 17 May 1919. (56) . Public Archives of Ontario, (hereafter PAO PAOPeak acid output, see there ) Sir WilliamHearst Papers, Correspondence, MU 1307, Ontario Woman Citizen'sAssociation to Hearst, 16 December 1918. (57) . For a comprehensive bibliography of reform literature andgovernment housing studies and an outline of government legislation inthe 1930-40s see J. David Hulchanski, Canadian Town Planning andHousing, 1930-1940: A Historical Bibliography (Toronto: Centre for Urbanand Community Studies, University of Toronto 1978) and Canadian TownPlanning and Housing, 1940-1950: A Historical Bibliography (Toronto:Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto 1979). (58) . Barry Ferguson and Doug Owram, "Social Scientists andPublic Policy from the 1920s through World War II," Journal ofCanadian Studies, 15 (Winter 1980-81): 3-17. (59) . Michiel Horn, "Leonard Marsh and the Coming of theWelfare State in Canada," Histoire Sociale/ Social History 9 (May1976): 197-204. (60) . Humphrey Carver, "A Housing Programme" in TheResearch Committee of the League For Social Reconstruction, SocialPlanning for Canada (1935; repr. Toronto: University of Toronto Press1975), 451-452. (61) . Ibid., 458. It is worthwhile noting here that key figures inthe building materials and construction sectors supported public housingprogrammes, hoping that they would provide much-needed demand for theirproducts. See John Bacher and David Hulchanski, "Keeping Warm andDry: The Policy Response to the Struggle for Shelter Among Canada'sHomeless, 1900-60," Urban History Review 16 (October 1987): 151. (62) . Carver, "A Housing Programme," 461. (63) . Ibid., 459. Also note E. G. Faludi, "Housing theNation," Canadian Forum (November 1941): 242. (64) . Houses for Canada, A Study of Housing Problems in theToronto Area (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1948), 61-63. (65) . On this point see John Belec, John Holmes, Tod Rutherford,"The Rise of Fordism and the Transformation of Consumption Norms:Mass Consumption and Housing in Canada, 1930-1945," in RichardHarris and Geraldine Pratt eds. Housing Tenure and Social Class (Gavle:Institute for Building Research 1988), 227-228. (66) . Leonard Marsh, Review of the "Report of theLieutenant-Governor's Committee on Housing Conditions inToronto," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 1(February 1935): 119-122. (67) . Humphrey Carver, "Analysis of Planning andHousing," Journal, Royal Architectural Institute of Canada The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC), founded in 1907, is a Canadian association representing over 3,600 architects, and faculty and graduates of Canadian Schools of Architecture.RAIC is the voice for architecture and its practice in Canada. (September 1937): 195. (68) . Ibid., 82. (69) . On the development of Regent Park see Albert Rose, RegentPark, A Study in Slum Clearance (Toronto: University of Toronto Press1958). (70) . Harry Cassidy, Social Security and Reconstruction in Canada(Toronto: The Ryerson Press, 1943), 3-6; Humphrey Carver, "TheArchitecture of Democracy," Journal, Royal Architectural Instituteof Canada (October 1938): 221. (71) . See Carver, "A Housing Programme," 460-461. Thisanalysis is expounded in the American context by Marc Weiss, "TheOrigins and Legacy of Urban Renewal," in Pierre Clavel et al. eds.Urban and Regional Planning in an Age of Austerity (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : PergamonPress 1980), 54. (72) . Carver, "A Housing Programme," 460. See also HarryCassidy, Social Security, 59. On slum pathology note Gerald Daly,"The British Roots of American Public Housing," Journal ofUrban History 15 (August 1989): 417. (73) . Carver, "A Housing Programme," 463. Carver alsoshared the same concerns of World War I era reformers over separatingboys and girls boys and girlsmercurialisannua. in housing projects. See his "Analysis ofPlanning," 195. (74) . Rose, Regent Park, 108. (75) . Eric Arthur, "Housing for Canada," Lecture 16, inPlanning of Canadian Towns with Special Reference to Post-WarOpportunities in Town Planning and Housing, A Course of Lectures Noun 1. course of lectures - a series of lectures dealing with a subjectcourse, course of instruction, course of study, class - education imparted in a series of lessons or meetings; "he took a course in basket weaving"; "flirting is not unknown in college Arranged by the School of Architecture in the University of Toronto,Volume 5, (Toronto: School of Architecture, University of Toronto 1944),14. (76) . Carver, "A Housing Programme," 458. (77) . Margaret Hobbs and Ruth Roach Pierson, "'A kitchenthat wastes no steps...': Gender, Class and the Home ImprovementPlan, 1936-1940," Histoire Sociale/Social History 41 (May 1988):9-39. (78) . Leonard Marsh, Report on Social Security for Canada (1943;repr. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1975). (79) . Leonard Marsh, "Industrialization and urbanization inCanada with their implications for Housing," Lecture 3 in Planningof Canadian Towns, Volume 1, 11-12. (80) . Eric Arthur, "Housing for Canada," Lecture 16,Ibid., 1-16. These suggestions did not extend to communal facilities butwere akin to the coin laundries and other facilities common in privateapartment buildings. For the much more farreaching design proposals ofearly feminists see Dolores Hayden, The Grand Domestic Revolution: AHistory of Feminist Designs in American Homes, Neighbourhoods and Cities(Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press 1981). (81) . For a contrasting view see Charlotte Whitten, The Dawn ofAmpler Life (Toronto: The Macmillan Company 1943) which was aconservative response to Leonard Marsh's Report on Social Security.Historian Frank Underhill criticized the reform movement for its policyof "nice genteel agitation," placing his hopes for housingreform in a powerful labour party. "The Housing Fiasco inCanada," Canadian Forum (October 1937): 228. (82) . Arthur, "Housing for Canada," 10. In fact, heseemed to sympathize with the manager's statement that "poisonivy poison ivy,poison oak,and poison sumac,woody vines and trailing or erect shrubs of the family Anacardiaceae (sumac family), native to North America. , surrounded by barbed wire barbed wire,wire composed of two zinc-coated steel strands twisted together and having barbs spaced regularly along them. The need for barbed wire arose in the 19th cent. , would be a godsend god��send?n.Something wanted or needed that comes or happens unexpectedly.[Alteration of Middle English goddes sand, God's message : goddes, genitive of God, God " in maintaininglawns in the project. A glimpse of the social control aims of 1930shousing reformers is shown by Humphrey Carver's appreciativereference to the fact that a fellow CHPA CHPA Consumer Healthcare Products Association (formerly Nonprescription Drug Manufacturers Association)CHPA Combined Heat and Power Association (UK)CHPA Corporate Housing Providers Association member, Harold Clark, was thegrandson of a close friend of the Cadbury family, famous for theirultra-paternalistic British company housing scheme, Bourneville GardenVillage. See Carver, Compassionate Landscape, 86. For a satirical lookat such corporate reform endeavours in Britain in the early twentiethcentury see George Bernard Shaw's play, Major Barbara, in LeeJacobus ed. The Bedford Introduction of to Drama (New York:St.Martin's Press 1989), 555-596. For a penetrating look at thetop-down reform approach of Viennese social democrats in the housingsphere see Helmut Gruber, Red Vienna, Experiment in Working-ClassCulture, 1919-1934 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1991), 46-65,146-179. (83) . Magali Larson, "The Production of Expertise and theConstitution of Expert Power" in Thomas Haskell ed. The Authorityof Experts, Studies in History and Theory (Bloomington: University ofIndiana Press 1984), 64.

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