Individual characteristics of adolescent methamphetamine users in relation to self-reported trouble with the police.

Individual characteristics of adolescent methamphetamine users in relation to self-reported trouble with the police. ABSTRACT Survey responses by nonexperimental drug users in grades 6-12 wereexamined to determine whether MA users and nonusers with sharedindividual characteristics experience differential rates of policetrouble, and whether specific factors place some users at greater riskthan others. Findings showed that police trouble is pronounced for MAusers, regardless of the number of drugs used, grade level,self-identification as African, Mexican, Puerto Rican Puer��to Ri��co? Abbr. PR or P.R.A self-governing island commonwealth of the United States in the Caribbean Sea east of Hispaniola. or Other LatinAmerican, number of days absent from school, and reported participationin after-school and organized family activities. These same factors wereassociated with police trouble in both MA and nonMA drug users, however,more so for MA drug users. Implications for prevention and interventionare discussed. ********** Little is known about adolescent methamphetamine (MA) users. Thisis unfortunate because MA use can lead to an array of medicalconsequences such as convulsions ConvulsionsAlso termed seizures; a sudden violent contraction of a group of muscles.Mentioned in: Heat Disorders , brain damage and injury (Simon, etal., 2000; Thompson, et al., 2004), social consequences such asincreased risk of sexually transmitted diseases Sexually transmitted diseasesInfections that are acquired and transmitted by sexual contact. Although virtually any infection may be transmitted during intimate contact, the term sexually transmitted disease is restricted to conditions that are largely , interpersonal violence,criminal involvement (Gleghorn, Marx, Vittinghoff, & Katz, 1998),and developmental consequences such as cognitive deficits and psychosis(Barr, et al., 2006; Rawson, Gonzales, & Brethen, 2002; Rawson,Gonzales, Obert, McCann, & Brethen, 2005; Simon, et al., 2000).Clearly, the reduction of MA use among adolescents is critical inpromoting their later health. National surveys such as the National Survey on Drug Use and Health(NSDUH NSDUH National Survey on Drug Abuse and Health , 2008), the Youth Risk Behavior Survey The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) is a biannual survey of adolescent health risk and health protective behaviors such as smoking, drinking, drug use, diet, and physical activity conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (Eaton, Kann, Kinchen,& al, 2006), and the Monitoring the Future Monitoring the Future is an annual survey given to 50,000 8th, 10th and 12th graders in the United States to determine drug use trends and patterns. The survey started in 1975, with 12th graders. It was expanded in 1991 to include 8th and 10th graders as well. Study (Johnston,O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2006) report on theprevalence of MA use; however, they do not report on characteristics ofadolescent MA users. The majority of studies examined subgroups, such asarrestees or those in juvenile detention centers (MacKenzie &Heischober, 1997; Pennell, National Institute of Justice (U.S.), &San Diego Association of Governments The San Diego Association of Governments (abbreviated SANDAG) is an association of local San Diego County governments. It is mainly a regional planning agency, with policy makers consisting of mayors, councilmembers, and a County Supervisor. ., 1999); those in treatment(Rawson, et al., 2005); homeless street youth (Gleghom, et al., 1998);or young men who have sex with men Men who have sex with men (MSM) is a term used mostly in the United States to classify men who engage in sex with other men, regardless of whether they self-identify as gay, bisexual, or heterosexual. (Clatts, Goldsamt, & Yi, 2005). Afew studies address high school students, including Oetting et al.(2000) and the recently published study of Oregon school students(Embry, Hankins, Biglan, & Boles, 2009). The police and the larger criminal justice system (CJS CJS?The abbreviation for Corpus Juris Secundum, which is a comprehensive encyclopedia of the principles of American law.Corpus Juris Secundum (CJS) serves as an important research tool that enables a user to locate statements and reported decisions on ) form themost common route for MA users, as with other drug users, to accessspecialty treatment and other needed health services health servicesManaged care The benefits covered under a health contract .("Methamphetamine / Amphetamine amphetamine(ămfĕt`əmēn), any one of a group of drugs that are powerful central nervous system stimulants. Amphetamines have stimulating effects opposite to the effects of depressants such as alcohol, narcotics, and barbiturates. Treatment Admissions in Urban andRural Areas, 2004," 2006). At the same time, past research suggeststhat adolescent MA users differ from nonMA drug users on an array ofcharacteristics. MA users tend to have more extreme legal, psychosocial,and drug use experiences compared to their nonMA drug using counterparts(Oetting, et al., 2000). The juvenile Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring “ADAM” redirects here. For other uses, see Adam (disambiguation).Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring, or ADAM, was a survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice to gauge the prevalence of alcohol and illegal drug use among prior arrestees. (ADAM Adam, the first man, in the BibleAdam(ăd`əm), [Heb.,=man], in the Bible, the first man. In the Book of Genesis, God creates humankind in his image as a species of male and female, giving them dominion over other life. ) program found that MA users were more likely to have beenarrested previously, more likely to have been incarcerated incarcerated/in��car��cer��at��ed/ (in-kahr��ser-at?ed) imprisoned; constricted; subjected to incarceration. in��car��cer��at��edadj.Confined or trapped, as a hernia. , and lesslikely to be in school, compared to nonusers (Pennell, et al., 1999). Inaddition, MA users were almost always users of multiple drugs (Oetting,et al., 2000; Pennell, et al., 1999). Psychosocially, MA users moreoften experience depression, auditory hallucinations HallucinationsDefinitionHallucinations are false or distorted sensory experiences that appear to be real perceptions. These sensory impressions are generated by the mind rather than by any external stimuli, and may be seen, heard, felt, and even , suicidal ideation suicidal ideationSuicidality Psychiatry Mental thoughts and images which hinge around committing suicide. See Suicide. ,school and legal problems, and exposure to violence (Rawson, et al.,2005). MA users in high school settings experienced higher rates ofconsequences such as car accidents, trouble in school, and fights withpeers (Oetting, et al., 2000). Socio-demographically, the race and ethnicity of adolescent MAusers have most often been white or Hispanic/Latino and less oftenBlack, Asian or Other (Oetting, et al., 2000; Pennell, et al., 1999;Rawson, et al., 2005). Users were older in the arrestee ARRESTEE, law of Scotland. He in whose hands a debt, or property in his possession, has been arrested by a regular arrestment. If, in contempt of the arrestment, he shall make payment of the sum, or deliver the goods arrested to the common debtor, he is not only liable criminally for (Pennell, etal., 1999), treatment (Rawson, et al., 2005), and in the high schoolstudy (Oetting, et al., 2000). In the high school sample, males weremore likely to use MA than females (Oetting, et al., 2000), but theopposite was found in the treatment study (Rawson, et al., 2005). While some previous studies have compared MA users to other drugusers, few have examined multiple characteristics simultaneously or inrelation to the occurrence of a serious negative social consequence. Itis important to study drug users in high school because there are stillopportunities to intervene to prevent expulsion or drop out from theschool system. This study focuses on whether MA users and nonMA drugusers with similar characteristics (e.g. demographics, risk andprotective factors) experience differential rates of trouble with thepolice. Finally, we asked whether specific factors place some MA usersat more risk of police involvement compared to other MA users. METHOD This exploratory study is a secondary analysis of data from astatewide Survey of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug Use by IndianaChildren and Adolescents administered annually since 1991 by The IndianaPrevention Resource Center (Gassman et al., 2006). In 2006,questionnaires were mailed to schools in Indiana that volunteered toparticipate in the survey. The names and addresses of the universe ofpublic and nonpublic schools were obtained from the Indiana Departmentof Education. Local school officials administered surveys to students ingrades 6 through 12. Recruitment materials to school corporations included an invitationto participate and a stamped addressed return envelope to the universeof 2,774 schools. The 383 schools that requested to participate weresent surveys, written instructions to administer the survey, and anadministration training video. A total of 131,017 students completed thesurvey which represented 22.4 percent of all 6-12th grade studentsenrolled in Indiana. Compared to the statewide population of students ingrades 6 through 12, respondents had proportionally fewer males (51.2vs. 49.1 percent), more Whites (85.2 vs. 80.3 percent), fewerAfrican-Americans (11.4 vs. 6.3) and fewer Mexican, Puerto Rican orOther Latin Americans This is a list of notable Latin American people. In alphabetical order within categories. Actors Norma Aleandro (born 1936) H��ctor Alterio (born 1929) (4.8 vs. 3.9). Participant and nonparticipantschools were similar in terms of urban and rural location. Corporationsthat participated were disproportionately nonpublic and fewer offeredfree lunch programs. These differences flag limitations of applying thefindings. In addition, because the rates and patterns of MA use vary byregion (Cretzmeyer, Sarrazin, Huber, Block, & Hall, 2003; Oetting,et al., 2000), the results from this largely rural sample may not applyto more densely populated regions. Despite these limitations, responsesto sensitive items about illegal drug use had a high degree ofconcurrence CONCURRENCE, French law. The equality of rights, or privilege which several persons-have over the same thing; as, for example, the right which two judgment creditors, Whose judgments were rendered at the same time, have to be paid out of the proceeds of real estate bound by them. Dict. de Jur. h.t. with state-level surveys that use probability sampling(Eaton, et al., 2006; Johnston, et al., 2006). Factors that influencedecisions made by schools to participate in the survey (e.g. timeconstraints) are unlikely to be relevant to student response rates whichwere consistently over 90% at each school. The inclusion criteria For Wikipedia's inclusion criteria, see: What Wikipedia is not.Inclusion criteria are a set of conditions that must be met in order to participate in a clinical trial. for this study were the use of any two ormore drugs (including alcohol and tobacco), each drug with reported usein the past month, in the past year, or in their life. This selectioncriteria was used because the focus of the study is on adolescentnonexperimental users of multiple drugs. Measures Outcome: Trouble with Police Participants were asked, "How many times have you experiencedthe following due to your drinking or drug use during the pastyear?" A list of eleven consequences followed with responseoptions: never, once, twice, 3-5 times, 6-9 times, or 10 or more times.Responses to "been in trouble with the police," were codedinto dichotomous di��chot��o��mous?adj.1. Divided or dividing into two parts or classifications.2. Characterized by dichotomy.di��chot categories, 0 (never) and 1 (one time or more). Background Variables Grade level (6 through 12) was treated as a continuous variable.Gender and race/ethnic origin were coded as dummy variables (female=1,Caucasian=1, African-American=1, Mexican, Puerto Rican or Other LatinAmerican combined=1). Methamphetamine or NonMethamphetamine Drug Use Group The survey asked three question sets: "have you everused," "how many times in the last year have you used,"and "how many times in the last month (30 days) have you used..." followed by a list of 20 types of drugs or drugclassifications. The list contained both licit (e.g. alcohol, tobacco,Ritalin) and illicit drugs (e.g. marijuana, cocaine, LSD LSDor lysergic acid diethylamide(lī'sûr`jĭk, dī'ĕth`ələmĭd, dī'ĕthəlăm`ĭd), alkaloid synthesized from lysergic acid, which is found in the fungus ergot ( ,methamphetamine). To be counted as a user of a particular drug arespondents had to report using the specific drug at least one timeduring the past month, the past year, or in their lifetimes. All threeselection criteria were used to maximize the selection of adolescentswho used specific drugs nonexperimentally. Thus, MA users were definedas those who reported using MA at least one time during the past month,the past year, or in their lifetimes. The remainder of the sample wasnonMA drug users. A methamphetamine user was coded as a dummy variable This article is not about "dummy variables" as that term is usually understood in mathematics. See free variables and bound variables.In regression analysis, a dummy variable (methamphetamine use=1). Injection Drug Use The survey asked three questions, "have you ever used...," "how many times in the last year have you used...," and "how many times in the last month (30 days) had youused a needle or syringe to inject a drug? Injection drug users wereindividuals who reported injection drug use at least one time during thepast month, the past year, or in their lifetimes. Injection drug userwas coded as a dummy variable (injection drug user=1). Absenteeism The survey asked, "In the past year, how often have you beenabsent from school?" The responses were coded: 0 (never), 1 (1-5days), 2 (6-10 days), 3 (11-19 days) and 4 (20+ days). Number of Drugs Used Nonexperimentally The survey asked about past month, past year, and lifetime use of20 drugs or drug classifications, which included licit (e.g. alcohol,tobacco, Ritalin) and illicit drugs (e.g. marijuana, cocaine, heroin,methamphetamine). To be counted, a respondent had to report using thedrug in the past month, the past year, or in their lifetimes. The numberof drugs used was summed and coded into 4 ordinal (mathematics) ordinal - An isomorphism class of well-ordered sets. categories: 1 (2-5), 2(6-10), 3 (11-15), and 4 (16+). Risk/Protective Factors To measure perceived risk of harm the survey asked, "How muchdo you think people risk harming themselves if they ...," followedby a list of seven drug use activities, including smoking one or morepacks of cigarettes per day and having five or more drinks once or twiceeach weekend. The response options from no risk to great risk wereaveraged for a scale ranging from 0 to 3 (Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. =0.88). Perceived peer approval was measured by asking, "How do youthink your close friends feel about you doing each of the followingthings?" The same seven drugs use activities were listed. Theresponse options from strongly disapprove to strongly approve wereaveraged for a scale from 0 to 4 (Cronbach's alpha=0.94). Violent and threatened behavior was measured by asking, "Inthe past year, how often have you ..." followed by a list of twelvesituations, including, "been in a physical fight," and"carried a gun to school". The response options from never to10 or more times were averaged for a scale ranging from 0 to 3(Cronbach's alpha=0.79). Participation in after-school activities was measured by asking,"There are about 180 school days per year. On how many of thosedays this year will you spend most of the after school hoursparticipating in ..." followed by a list of seven activities,including, "playing on official school sports teams," and"official school arts, music or drama programs". The responseoptions from none to 180 days were coded 0 (none), 1 (1-9 days), 2(10-29 days), and 3 (30 days of more). Participation in family activities was measured by asking,"How often in the past year have you participated in organizedfamily activities?" The response options were coded: 0 (never), 1(once per week), 2 (twice per week), and 3 (3 or more times per week). RESULTS Youth that reported nonexperimental multiple drug use, including MA(n=733) or excluding MA (n=12,840), were analyzed. Only sevenrespondents reported using only MA and they were omitted from theanalysis. Sample Characteristics Table 1 describes characteristics of the sample. There was nosignificant group difference by gender. MA users were disproportionatelyin younger grade levels compared to nonMA drug users. For both groups,the prevalence of drug use peaked in 10th grade. The majority of MAusers were Caucasian. MA users reported using a greater number of drugscompared to nonMA drug users. Compared to only 0.4% of nonMA users, 56percent of MA users reported using 11 or more drugs. NonMA drug usersreported using an average of 3.3 (SD=1.7) drugs compared to MA users whoreported using an average of 11.7 (SD=4.9) drugs (t=46.5, p<.01) (notshown). MA users reported high use of needle or syringes to injectdrugs. More than 75 percent of nonMA drug users reported no trouble withthe police, and only 40 percent of MA users reported none. Forty-sixpercent of MA users reported 2 or more contacts with the police comparedto only 11 percent of nonMA drug users. Logit Analysis We used binomial binomial(bī'nō`mēəl), polynomial expression (see polynomial) containing two terms, for example, x+y. The binomial theorem, or binomial formula, gives the expansion of the nth power of a binomial (x+ logit analysis (STATA, version 9) to examine therelationship between socio-demographic characteristics, drug use, andrisk/protective factors with reported trouble with the police(categories never versus one time or more). Table 2 shows factors associated with reported trouble with thepolice as a consequence of drinking or drug use in the past year versusno trouble. As grade level advanced from 6th through 12th grades, theodds of having been in trouble with the police decreased 12.2 percent.For African-Americans, and Mexican or Puerto Rican or Other LatinAmericans the odds of reporting police trouble increased 47.8 and 67.0percent, respectively. For a standard deviation increase in perceivedrisk of harm from no risk to great risk, the odds of involvement withthe police versus never having police contact in the past year decreased10.0 percent. A standard deviation increase from strongly disapprove tostrongly approve in perceived peer disapproval of drug use activitiesdecreased the odds of trouble with the police by 22.6 percent. Astandard deviation increase in reported violent or threatened behaviorfrom never to 10 or more increased the odds of reporting policeinvolvement by 93.0 percent. Each additional unit change increase indays absent from school increased the odds of trouble with the police15.5 percent. For each additional unit change increase in participationin after-school activities, the odds of contact with the policedecreased 12.6 percent. The higher the level of reported participationin organized family events the odds of trouble with the police decreased4.7 percent. The odds of reporting police trouble were 28.3 percentgreater for MA users. For those who used a higher number of drugs, theodds of having been in trouble with the police increased 47.2 percent. Table 3 compares predicted probabilities of having been in troublewith the police in the past year. Across grade levels the predictedprobability of trouble with the police was greater for MA users (4 to 6percent) compared to nonMA drug users; however, the total percentagedrop in predicted probabilities from sixth to twelfth grades were nearlythe same for both groups (15-17% drop). African-American and Mexican,Puerto Rican or Other Latin Americans MA users had higher predictedprobabilities for police trouble (difference of 6 percent) compared tononMA drug users. MA users who reported no school absences had a 4 percent greaterpredicted probability of trouble with the police compared to nonMA drugusers. For both groups, there was between a 2 to 3 percent increase inpredicted probability of trouble with the police for every categoricalincrease in days absent from school. MA users who reported neverparticipating in after-school activities had a 5 percent greaterpredicted probability of trouble with the police compared to theircounterparts. For both groups there was approximately a 2 to 3 percentdecrease in predicted probability of trouble with the police for everycategorical increase in reported participation in after-schoolactivities. Likewise MA users who reported never participating inorganized family events had a 5 percent greater predicted probability oftrouble with the police. However, for both groups there was about a 1percent decrease of trouble with the police for every categoricalincrease in reported participation in organized family events. The predicted probability that MA users were in trouble with thepolice was 5 to 6 percent higher compared to nonMA drug users whoreported using the same number of drugs. For both groups there was a 7to 10 percent increase in predicted probability of trouble with thepolice for every categorical increase in number of drugs reportedlyused. DISCUSSION Our aim was to examine simultaneously individual characteristics ofnonexperimental, multiple drug using adolescents in schools. Thequestions were 1) whether MA users and nonusers with sharedcharacteristics experience differential rates of police involvement, and2) whether certain factors suggest that some MA users experience morepolice contact than other MA users. The findings suggest that legal trouble is exceedingly pronouncedamong MA drug users compared to nonMA drug users, regardless of severalshared characteristics: number of drugs used, grade level,self-identification as African, Mexican, Puerto Rican or Other LatinAmerican, number of days absent from school, and reported participationin after-school and organized family activities. These results inconjunction with findings from prior research (Baker & Dawe, 2005;Baskin-Sommers & Sommers, 2006; Sommers & Baskin, 2006) suggestat least two interpretations. MA may cause symptoms and reactions suchas aggression, irritability irritability/ir��ri��ta��bil��i��ty/ (ir?i-tah-bil��i-te) the quality of being irritable.myotatic irritability? the ability of a muscle to contract in response to stretching. , and paranoia that lead to police contact. Asubanalysis comparing the mean index scores for violent behaviorprovided support for this interpretation (not shown). Specifically, MAusers (M=1.1, SD=.83) compared to nonMA drug users (M=.47, SD=.42)reported higher engagement in violent behavior in the past year(t=20.79, p<.001). An alternate, although not a contradictoryinterpretation, is that factors correlated with MA use that were notmeasured in this study may also contribute to an increased likelihoodthat MA users experience police trouble. Examples include growing up inan unstable family environment, a family history of alcohol or drug use,and history of psychiatric treatment (Russell, et al., 2008). Among MA users, trouble with the police was more probable withthose who: (a) are in lower grade levels; (b) identified asAfrican-American, Mexican, Puerto Rican or Other Latin American; (c)have higher absenteeism; (d) use a greater number of drugs; and (e) haveless participation in organized family and afterschool af��ter��school?adj. often after-school1. Taking place immediately following school classes: afterschool activities.2. activities. Theserelationships likewise existed among nonMA drug users; however, reportedtrouble with the police was consistently more probable for MA drugusers. For both groups, the higher probabilities of police contact amongyounger grade levels may be an artifact A distortion in an image or sound caused by a limitation or malfunction in the hardware or software. Artifacts may or may not be easily detectable. Under intense inspection, one might find artifacts all the time, but a few pixels out of balance or a few milliseconds of abnormal sound of the sample. Specifically,many adolescents who use multiple drugs and have police contact drop outof school before they reach the older grade levels and, therefore, maynot be represented in our sample. Participation in after-school programsappeared to have protective aspects for both groups of youth in terms ofpreventing drug-related trouble with the police. For both groups,incremental absenteeism is a risk factor signaling that an assessment,intervention, and/or referral to needed services may be appropriate. In this study, we cannot determine the reason whyself-identification as African-American, Mexican, Puerto Rican or OtherLatin American was related to increased police trouble for both groups.Prior research suggests that police decision making contributes tominority overrepresentation in the juvenile justice system (Pope &Snyder, 2003). While some research suggests racial bias as a possibleexplanation for these disparities (Harstone & Richetelli, 2001),Pope and Snyder (2003) indicate that studies have not been conducted toexclude the possibility that nonwhite non��white?n.A person who is not white.nonwhite adj. youth are committing most of thecrime. Reasons why minorities may commit a disproportionate amount ofthe crime include exposure to conditions such as poverty, lack ofopportunity, and family dysfunction (McCord, 1997; Pope & Snyder,2003). It is unfortunate that the CJS is the predominant gateway foradolescent MA users to access treatment. Although juvenile court juvenile courtSpecial court handling problems of delinquent, neglected, or abused children. Two types of cases are processed by a juvenile court: civil matters, often concerning care of an abandoned or impoverished child, and criminal matters, arising from antisocial systemsare a legitimate and useful route for youth to access needed drugtreatment services, if helped earlier through noncriminal justicepathways, adolescents would be spared more of the social and healthrisks exacerbated by MA use (King, 2006). Although discussion of the many complexities of juvenile justiceprocessing is beyond the scope of this paper, school personnel andothers that may influence adolescent CJS outcomes should be aware thatsome options promote needed treatment services and others do not.Juvenile drug courts, diversion programs, and court ordered probationwith treatment are recommended because they encourage access to neededsocial services social servicesNoun, plwelfare services provided by local authorities or a state agency for people with particular social needssocial servicesnpl → servicios mpl sociales; whereas detention, out-of-home placement, and transferto adult court are less likely to ensure access to treatment(Terry-McElrath & McBride, 2004). Previous studies on MA drug usersthat participated in drug courts or drug court coupled with treatmenthave demonstrated outcomes of reduced recidivism recidivism:see criminology. , regardless of age,gender, and race (Bouffard & Richardson, 2007; Hartman, Listwan,& Shaffer, 2007; Marinelli-Casey, et al., 2008). In the quest for Verb 1. quest for - go in search of or hunt for; "pursue a hobby"quest after, go after, pursuelook for, search, seek - try to locate or discover, or try to establish the existence of; "The police are searching for clues"; "They are searching for the ever earlier intervention, it is noteworthy thatuniversal prevention or reducing the onset of MA use among youth is apreferential strategy that has recently received empirical support inthe general, particularly rural, population (Spoth, Shin, & Redmond,2006). The factors that impact a reduction in MA use and negativeconsequences are complex and extend beyond the individual-level factorsinvestigated in this study. A causal model A causal model is an abstract model that uses cause and effect logic to describe the behaviour of a system. See also[IMG][1]] Bayesian network Causal loop diagram Systems biology Econometrics Forecasting of MA use and harm reductionwas recently published that offers guidance in the selection ofevidence-based approaches and strategies to prevent MA use (Birckmayer,Fisher, Holder, & Yaeoubian, 2008). All correspondence concerning this article should be sent to: RuthGassman, Ph.D., Indiana Prevention Resource Center, Department ofApplied Health Science, Indiana University Indiana University,main campus at Bloomington; state supported; coeducational; chartered 1820 as a seminary, opened 1824. It became a college in 1828 and a university in 1838. The medical center (run jointly with Purdue Univ. , 501 North Marton, Suite 110,Bloomington, Indiana Bloomington is a city in south central Indiana. Located about 50 miles southwest of Indianapolis, it is the seat of Monroe County. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, Bloomington had a total population of 69,291, making it the 7th largest city in Indiana. 47404; Phone: (812) 855-1237; Fax: (812) 855-4940;Email: rgassman@indiana.edu. Acknowledgement. The authors would like to thank Eric Vance Martinfor his feedback on this manuscript. REFERENCES Baker, A., & Dawe, S. (2005). Amphetamine use and co-occurringpsychological problems: Review of the literature and implications fortreatment. Australian Psychologist. 40(2), 88-95. Barr, A. M., Panenka, W. J., MacEwan, W., Thornton, A. E., Lang, D.J., Honer, W. G., et al. (2006). The need for speed: an update onmethamphetamine addiction. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience,31(5), 301-313. Baskin-Sommers, A., & Sommers, 1. (2006). Methamphetamine useand violence among young adults. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(6),661-674. Birckmayer, J., Fisher, D. A., Holder, H. D., & Yacoubian, G.S. (2008). Prevention of methamphetamine abuse: Can existing evidenceinform community prevention? 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Nowicke, Ph.D., M.L.S. and Mi Kung Jun, Ph.D. Indiana UniversityTABLE 1Demographic characteristics of non-MA drug users and MA users (9) Non-MA drug users MA users (n = 12,840) (#) (n = 733) (##) [chi square]Gender 1.43 Male 52.7 55.0 Female 47.3 45.0Grade 16.94 ** 6th 3.0 2.6 7th 6.0 8.0 8th 14.7 18.0 9th 15.0 16.8 10th 24.2 21.9 11th 17.6 16.1 12th 19.5 16.6Ethnicity 154.74 ** Caucasian 88.5 75.8 African-American 4.3 6.1 Latin-American 3.9 9.0 Asian 0.7 3.5 Other 2.6 5.6Number of drugsused 2-5 90.6 9.8 7235.76 ** 6-10 9.0 33.9 11-15 0.4 30.4 16+ 0.0 25.9Syringe or needleuse Lifetime 2.2 55.3 4041.73 ** Past year 1.7 52.9 4243.57 ** Past month 1.0 48.2 4459.89 **Had troubles withthe police Never 76.4 40.4 1005.25 ** Once 12.4 14.1 Twice 4.8 12.0 3-5 times 3.9 11.9 6-9 times 1.0 6.7 10 + times 1.5 14.9Notes.(#) Non-MA drug users indicate those who reported using 2 or moredrugs except methamphetamine during their lifetime, during thepast year, and during the past month.(##) MA users indicate those who reported using methamphetamineduring their lifetime, during the past year, and during the pastmonth.** p <.01TABLE 2Logit regression results on having been in trouble with the police(yes=1) versus never Percent Std. change b Err. in oddsGender (Male = 1) -.02 .05Grade -.13 ** .01 -12.2Caucasian -.01 .12African-American .39 * .15 47.8Latin-American .51 ** .15 67.0Asian -.25 .27Perceived risk of harm -.11 ** .04 -10.0Perceived peer disapproval -.26 ** .03 -22.6Violent behavior .66 ** .05 93.0Days absent from school .14 ** .02 15.5Participation in after-school -.14 ** .03 -12.6 activitiesParticipation in organized -.05 * .02 -4.7 family eventsSyringe or needle use (User=1) .01 .14Methamphetamine use (User=1) .25 * .12 28.3Number of drugs used .39 ** .06 47.2Constant -.44 ** .16* p < .05 ** p < .01 n=13,573TABLE 3Predicted probability of having been in trouble with thepolice versus never Non-MA MA users users DifferenceGrade 6th .34 .40 .06 7th .31 .37 .06 8th .28 .34 .06 9th .26 .31 .05 10th .23 .28 .05 11th .21 .26 .05 12th .19 .23 .04Race/Ethnicity African-American .31 .37 .06 Non-African-American .23 .28 .05 Latin-American .34 .40 .06 Non-Latin-American .23 .28 .05Days absent from school Never .20 .24 .04 1-5 days .22 .26 .04 6-10 days .24 .29 .05 11-19 days .27 .32 .05 20 + days .30 .36 .06Participation in after-schoolactivities Never .26 .31 .05 1-9 days .23 .28 .05 10-29 days 21.00 .26 .05 30 + days .19 .23 .04Participation in organized familyevents Never .25 .30 .05 Once per week .24 .29 .05 Twice per week .23 .28 .05 More than three times per week .22 .27 .05Number of drugs used 2-5 .22 .27 .05 6-10 .30 .35 .05 11-15 .39 .45 .06 16 (+) .48 .54 .06