Abang in the middle and upper Kapuas: additional evidence.

Abang in the middle and upper Kapuas: additional evidence. In his recent paper on the abang honorific hon��or��if��ic?adj.Conferring or showing respect or honor.n.A title, phrase, or grammatical form conveying respect, used especially when addressing a social superior. (denoting royal bloodfor men) among Sarawak and Sadong Malays, Bob Reece Robert Scott Reece (born January 5 1951 in Sacramento, California) was a catcher in Major League Baseball. TeamsMontreal Expos 1978 External links* Career statistics and player information from Baseball-Reference (n.d.) contends thatits use most likely originated in pre-Islamic West Borneo as a new classof leaders arose through unions between immigrant Hindu-Javanese traders(linked ideologically to Majapahit and its many tributaries) and localDayak. Use of the honorific abang became institutionalized in��sti��tu��tion��al��ize?tr.v. in��sti��tu��tion��al��ized, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��ing, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��es1. a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to.b. over thegenerations and was retained as Islam made its slow ascent of theKapuas. (1) Reece argues that the middle Kapuas kingdom ofMangkiang-Sanggau (or simply Sanggau in West Kalimantan West Kalimantan (Indonesian: Kalimantan Barat often abbreviated to Kalbar) is a province of Indonesia. It is one of four Indonesian provinces in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its capital city Pontianak is located right on the Equator line. ) might be theorigin of the honorific, given the frequency of abang in royalgenealogies and its close connection through intermarriage in��ter��mar��ry?intr.v. in��ter��mar��ried, in��ter��mar��ry��ing, in��ter��mar��ries1. To marry a member of another group.2. To be bound together by the marriages of members.3. , legend, andtributary claims to Sarawak. In this paper, I present additionalevidence on abang from the middle and upper Kapuas (Figure 1) thatsupports Reece's argument for a Kapuas origin, based on both Dutchand oral historical sources. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Following a Dutch hiatus in interior West Borneo of over 20 years,in 1856 Assistant Resident H. von Gaffron journeyed along the middle andupper Kapuas to re-establish relations with the various Malay rulers,sign new contracts with them, and make treaties with leaders of thelarge tribal blocks such as the Iban (Batang Loepars), Kayan, Embaloh,and Taman. As part of his report, yon Gaffron included descent lines ofthe Malay rulers from Sintang to Jongkong. (2) I reproduce these here,as von Gaffron reported them, with the original Dutch spelling andreference to the abang honorific highlighted. We should not assume,however, that these all represent direct father-son (or -daughter)successions, which they do not, as von Gaffron provides very shallowgenealogical information. (3) The title abang is evident here,interspersed with other (perhaps less archaic) royal titles such aspangeran, panambahan, and radin, but seems more prevalent in the farupriver kingdom of Selimbau.Descent Line of Sintang Rulers1. Djarak Joeantie (Pattie Anoem)2. Abang Saman3. Djebaijer [son-in-law of No. 2 from Java]4. Abang Soer5. Abang Tamelang6. Pangeran Pandeling7. Pangeran Toengal8. Pangeran Praboe9. Pangeran Soeta Natta (Sulthan)10. Sulthan Tikaij11. Sulthan Muhamd Samsoedin12. Pangeran Ratoe13. Pangeran Dipattie14. Panambahan Kasoema NagaraDescent Line of Silat Rulers1. Panambahan Titie2. Aboeng Maas Toetie/Pangeran Anoem [transcription error of abang?]3. Panambahan Bago4. Panambahan Mitjoek5. Pangeran Anoem6. Pangeran RatoeDescent Line of Selimbau Rulers1. Abang Tadjoek2. Abang Tadjoek [sic]3. Abang Maas4. Abang Paijong5. Abang Djamal6. Abang Kana7. Abang Kladu8. Poetrie Kambang [married to Abang Telu]9. Abang Kaloedjoe10. Abang Koendan11. Abang Paijong12. Pangeran Soema13. Pangeran MuhamedDescent Line of Jongong Rulers1. Kiai Patie Oedah2. Radin Nathar3. Radin Martha (died in 1855)4. Abang Abdoel Arab Enthoven's (1903) later, more detailed account of the KapuasMalay kingdoms also cites numerous rulers and nobles with abanghonorifics. For example, the founder of Bunut (the youngest kingdom from1815) was Abang Barita, a Malay trader from Selimbau who was descendedfrom Embaloh blood and married to a daughter of the Selimbau ruler.(Interestingly, von Gaffron reports the founder of Bunut as AdieSoetrie, perhaps his title prior to taking the subsequent name.) He wassucceeded by his son-in-law, Abang Soerjia, in 1855; the latter'sown son, Abang Oetih followed in 1859, succeeded then in 1876 by hisson, Abang Tella, who was on the throne until his banishment banishment:see exile. BanishmentAcadiansAmerica’s lost tribe; suffered expulsion under British. [Am. Hist.: Jameson, 2; Am. Lit. formisdeeds in 1884. His son, Abang Tanah, was chosen as the next ruler(1903, 1:94-97). Most of these rulers took on quite highfaluting high��fa��lu��tinor hi��fa��lu��tin ? also high��fa��lu��tingadj. InformalPompous or pretentious: "highfalutin reasons for denying direct federal assistance to the unemployed" titlesupon ascending to the throne--Panembahan Adi Pakoe Negara (AbangBarita), Pangeran Adipati Mangkoe Negara (Abang Soerija and AbangTellah), Pangeran Adipati (Abang Oetih), and Pangeran Ratoe Adi PakoeNegara (Abang Tanah)--suggesting that the older abang honorific was finefor "everyday use" but just no longer in style when one got tothe throne. Of Jongkong (known prior to 1868 by its place name, Ulak Lamau),Enthoven (1903, I: 127-31) confirms yon Gaffron's account, withKiai Patie Oeda (the chief at the time of the first Dutch expeditionupriver in 1823) having the fore-title of radja; he was succeeded by hisson, Radin Nata, and the latter, having no son of his own, was succeededby his grandson, Abang Abdoel Arab, the issue of Radin Nata'sdaughter, Dajang Mesinto, and a Muslim Palin Dayak named Abang Boedja.(Both Radin Nata and Abang Abdoel Arab used pangeran as theirfore-title.) Abang Abdoel Arab's oldest son, Abang Oenang, took thethrone in 1864, along with the title, Pangeran Soleiman Soerija Negara.Upon Abang Oenang's death in 1886, his oldest son, Abang Alam,still a minor, took the throne under three regents--Raden Soema, AbangAli, and Abang Kijoeng. (Enthoven makes no mention of Radin Martha,"number three" on yon Gaffron's list, perhaps because ofa short, unmemorable Adj. 1. unmemorable - not worth rememberingforgettable - easily forgotten reign or an error in one or the other'sinformation.) The "everyday" nature of abang is borne out inthe Jongkong genealogy genealogy(jē'nēŏl`əjē, –ăl`–, jĕ–), the study of family lineage. Genealogies have existed since ancient times. that Enthoven records, with the sons of AbangOenang listed as Abang Alam, Abang Osman, Abang Noeh, and Abang Obal,ranging in age from 20 to 13 years (1903, I: 130-131). This would seemto make abang the male equivalent of the ubiquitous upper and middleKapuas female honorific, dayang (long used by the nearby Iban as a termof endearment en��dear��ment?n.1. The act of endearing.2. An expression of affection, such as a caress.endearmentNounan affectionate word or phraseNoun 1. for girls). Von Gaffron does not remark on the kingdom of Piasa, perhapsbecause of its historical small size and largely inferior statuscompared to Jongkong and Selimbau. Enthoven (1903, I:135-38), however,cites the official Piasa history (salasila) as claiming its founder,Raden Djaka Lemana, traced his origins from a princess of Majapahit.Enthoven's sources in Selimbau said that Raden Djaka Lemana hadcome from Labai Lawai, said to be the earlier version of Sukadana (butsee Smith 2005). When the first Dutch treaty was signed with Piasa in1823 during Hartmann's trip, the ruler was Abang Soewara (whosetitle was Kijai Dipati Martapoera and who was the twelfth ruleraccording to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. its official history). He was succeeded by his eldest son,Abang Noeh, who in 1859 took the title, Pangeran Osman Dirdja KesoemaNegara, and reigned until his death in 1896. Abang Noeh'sillegitimate son, Abang Santoek, was installed on the throne by theDutch because they had little faith in the legitimate heir, Abang Bijak,who was both grandson of Abang Noeh and son of Abang Tella, the banishedBunut ruler. The next kingdom downriver down��riv��er?adv. & adj.Toward or near the mouth of a river; in the direction of the current: swam downriver; a downriver canoe race.Adv. 1. (as Enthoven's account begins inthe Kapuas headwaters) is Selimbau. Enthoven (1903, I:156-63) traces itsfounding to a Dayak chief named Goentoer Badjoe Bindoeh; no date isgiven but this may well have been in the early 1700s. Following thefounder were a string of Dayak chiefs--Adji, Abang Tedong, AbangDjambal, Abang Oepak, Abang Boedjang, Abang Ambal, Abang Tella, AbangParah, Abang Goenoeng, Abang Teding, and Abang Mahidin who was the firstchiefly convert to Islam. Abang Mahidin was succeeded by Abang Tadjak,the first ruler to take the title raja and who took the honorific, Soeradi Laga Pakoe Negara. (This would appear to be the first ruler on vonGaffron's list.) His heir was his grandson, Abang Genah, who wassucceeded by his own son, Abang Tadjak (the second on von Gaffron'slist perhaps). Next in line were Abang Keladi and Abang Sasap, followed by AbangTella (who, in 1823, made a treaty with Commissioner Hartmann, the firstDutch official to travel that far up the Kapuas). His successor,Pangeran Hadji Mohammad Abas (von Gaffron's number 13), reigned for48 years from 1830 and was much loved by Dutch officials from thefrequent praise I have read in the archival documents. It was he (orAbang Tella--Enthoven is not clear here) who helped both Undup andKantu' resettle resettleVerb[-tling, -tled] to settle to live in a different placeresettlement nVerb 1. along the Kapuas after continual raiding from theSkrang and Saribas. He was succeeded in 1878 by his son, PanembahanHadji Moeda Agong Pakoe Negara, whose own son, Hadji Mohammad Osman,stood as heir to the throne in 1890. This history would also seem toconfirm both the "everyday" use of abang and its relativeantiquity in pre-Islamic West Borneo (and subsequent diminishment underincreased Islamic and Dutch influence, at least among the rulersthemselves). Interestingly, Enthoven makes no mention of Pangeran Soema, who isnumber 12 on von Gaffron's list. He may well have been Abang Tella,the mother's brother of Pangeran Hadji Mohammed Abas, under anofficial title. Then there is the appearance of Abang MohammadDjalaloedin, the ninth ruler, under whose reign Selimbau was sackedtwice by huge Iban forces. Enthoven provides no dates here, but locatesthe first sacking sack��ing?n.A coarse, stout woven cloth, such as burlap or gunny, used for making sacks; sackcloth.sackingNouncoarse cloth woven from flax, hemp, or jute, and used to make sacksNoun at Pelembang where the capital had been since itsfounding. Von Gaffron's list is not much help, given eitherinformational errors or name changes. However, from the oral histories Ihave collected from the Emperan Iban, I would place the attacks in thevery late 18th or very early 19th centuries as they seem to haveoccurred under the leadership of Temenggong Simpi' Pala', oneof the premier Ulu Ai'/Emperan tau' serang Se`rang´n. 1. The boatswain of a Lascar or East Ondian crew. (war leaders) andthe first Iban temenggong. (Simpi' Pala' is said to havemagically stretched his blowpipe blowpipe/blow��pipe/ (blo��pip) a tube through which a current of air is forced upon a flame to concentrate and intensify the heat. across the Kapuas to provide a bridgefor the Iban attack.) These particular details are important because in both local Ibanand Malay oral histories of the sacking of Selimbau, the boy-heir to thethrone is said to have been captured. As was Iban custom with childwar-captives, a family adopted him and gave him the name Minsut. When hewas an adult, the Selimbau Malays asked that he return to take thethrone. They paid a ransom of two large ceramic jars filled with gold,and Minsut took the throne to become Pangeran Suma SUMA Saskatchewan Urban Municipalities Association (Canada)SUMA Humanitarian Supply Management System (WHO)Raden Dra AbangBerita (Wadley 2002:323). Could Abang Tella, Pangeran Soema, and Minsutthen have been the same person? The possibility is certainly intriguingthough entirely speculative without additional evidence. The Emperan Iban-Selimbau connection to the term abang is furtherestablished through an old wooden measuring bowl (kulak kulak(Russian: “fist”) Wealthy or prosperous landed peasant in Russia. Before the Russian Revolution of 1917, kulaks were major figures in peasant villages, often lending money and playing central roles in social and administrative affairs. ), an heirloom ofa household in a community of Kecamatan Batang Lupar (Figure 2). (4) Thebowl, measuring 15 cm. in height and 20 cm. in diameter, is said to havebeen given to a household ancestor by the raja of Selimbau. According tothe household's oral history, the jawi script Jawi (Arabic: جوي Jăwi) (or Yawi in Pattani) is an adapted Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay language. It is used as one of two official scripts in Brunei for writing Malay, and is employed to a limited extent in Malaysia, in Indonesia, in southern is said to read,"Ini gantang Apang Jail tulih abang amat raja Selimbau (this is themeasuring bowl of Apang Jali This article is about the Islamic and indian architectural element. For West African jali poets, see Griot. A jali (or jaali) is the term for a perforated stone or latticed screen, usually with an ornamental pattern constructed through the use of written by [his] true abang, the ruler ofSelimbau)." Apang they took to mean a Malayized version of the Ibanapai or 'father,' which would indicate the recipient as Jinak,widely referred to as Apai Jali after his eldest son. Jim Collins(personal communication) indicates that apang is an old Kapuas teknonymequivalent to the Iban apai. (5) Here, it is the ruler of Selimbau whois portrayed as the relative superior through reference to his royalabang status, though Jinak was a well-known leader and manok sabong(literally, 'fighting cock' or war lieutenant) under thesponsorship of such tau' serang as Ngumbang and Temenggong Rentap(the second one of that name). Another interpretation of abang is themore prosaic meaning of elder brother or elder brother-in-law, whichmight reflect an attempt by Selimbau to mitigate future hostilerelations with their long-time neighbors, sometime enemies and allies,and new economic competitors by emphasizing a fictive kinship Fictive kinship is the process of giving someone a kinship title and treating them in many ways as if they had the actual kinship relationship implied by the title. People with this relationship are known as fictive kin. Fictive kinship is also known as relatedness. relationor perhaps even referencing the Minsut story. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] To decipher the jawi script, I sent both a photo of the bowl and arubbing I made of the script (Figure 3) to Michael Laffan (PrincetonUniversity Princeton University,at Princeton, N.J.; coeducational; chartered 1746, opened 1747, rechartered 1748, called the College of New Jersey until 1896.Schools and Research Facilities ) and Annabel Gallop (The British Library British Library,national library of Great Britain, located in London. Long a part of the British Museum, the library collection originated in 1753 when the government purchased the Harleian Library, the library of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, and groups of manuscripts. ) to see what sensethey could make of it. Though hard to read because of worm holes andstylistic flourishes, they were able to discern the following clearlyenough: Line 1: Ini gantang Apang Jali yang mem ... [here is the measuringcontainer of Apang Jali who ...] Line 2: t.w.s.w.k [tusuk?] ... ng raja Selimbau [... ruler ofSelimbau] Line 3: adanya ... [ ] Date: 1306 [AD 1888/89] [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] According to Gallop (personal communication), this follows thestyle of metal household containers seen in Brunei of the same period,and the "mem ..." might refer to mempunyai or memerintah,indicating territorial jurisdiction Territorial jurisdiction in United States law refers to a court's power over events and persons within the bounds of a particular geographic territory. If a court does not have territorial jurisdiction over the events or persons within it, then the court cannot bind the defendant . The date of 1888 solidifies thispossibility: In the middle of that year, the Dutch held a formalpeacemaking PeacemakingSee also Antimilitarism.Agrippa, MeneniusCoriolanus’s witty friend; reasons with rioting mob. [Br. Lit.: Coriolanus]Antenorpercipiently urges peace with Greeks. [Gk. Lit. ceremony between Selimbau and Emperan Iban who had settledalong the lower Leboyan River (see Wadley 2003:101). Because of ongoingdisputes over access to commercial forest products involving both sidesencroaching on the claims of the other, the Dutch brokered a settlementin which the boundary between them was set as the left bank of theLeboyan (looking downriver). At the time, Jinak's people had begunmoving into the lower Leboyan from the Lanjak area following thedevastation of the Kedang Expedition of 1886 (Wadley 2001, 2004).Following this peacemaking, more Iban moved into the lower Leboyan andmore Malays moved more permanently into the Lakes, creating conflict aswell as opportunities for intermarriage (Wadley 2003). Unfortunately, noabang is detectable in the script to confirm that part of the oralhistory. Moving downriver from Selimbau, Enthoven (1903, I:178-80) tracesthe founding of the Suhaid kingdom (ignored by von Gaffron) to a certainRipong, at about the time of Abang Tadjak's reign in Selimbau.Pangeran Soema di Laga Mangkoe Negara ruled there for around 75 years,having made the first treaty with the Dutch in 1823, and was succeededby his son, Kesoema Anom Soerija Negara. No use of the term abang occursin this short history, but it is likely to be there under the surface,given its ubiquity UbiquitySee also Omnipresence.Burma-Shavetheir signs seen as “verses of the wayside throughout America.” [Am. Commerce and Folklore: Misc. in neighboring and closely related kingdoms. This ismuch the same for Silat (1903, I:190-91), the next kingdom downriver:Various titles of pangeran, pangeran ratu Pangeran Ratu (d. 1651) was the ruler of Banten in Northwest Java, Indonesia, and was the first ruler anywhere on the island of Java to take the title of sultan, which he took in 1638, under the Arabic name Abulmafakhir Mahmud Abdulkadir. , and pangeran perabu areevident, but not of abang, which accords with von Gaffron's listbut may reflect a lessened effort to collect such details on the part ofboth men. The term abang certainly persists among lesser Malay noblesthroughout the region, such as in the case of Abang Merdjoenit who,based in Semitau, was the Dutch government's point man for localaffairs, both Malay and Dayak, in the late 19th century (1903, 1:221).He appears frequently in Dutch archival correspondences in relation tothe ongoing Batang Loepar (Iban) problems of the period. Generally regarded as the most powerful mid-river kingdom (at leastin the nineteenth century), Sintang does not exhibit many instances ofabang in its official genealogy as recorded by Ethnoven (1903, II: 540;agreeing with von Gaffron on this), though its line of early rulers aremore often than not titled adi. This is not the case, however, forSekadau and Belitang, which were generally considered to have been underSintang's authority. In these two territories, abang is repletethroughout their overlapping genealogies (1903, II:671-85). The same canbe said for Sanggau, the kingdom to which Reece makes his link:Established by a Dayak leader, Babai Tjinga (who married aHindu-Javanese woman named Dara Nanti from Sukadana), Sanggau was ruledby numerous abang, including Abang Awal (the fifth ruler and firstMuslim ruler according to Reece's sources), Abang Djeni (sixth),Abang Oedjoe (eighth), Abang Sembilan Hari (ninth), Abang Saka (tenth),and Abang Angan (sixteenth); numerous lesser nobles titled abang arealso present throughout the genealogy (1903, II:712-13). This brief account of the use of abang in the middle and upperKapuas River The Kapuas River (Indonesian: Sungai Kapuas) is located in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. At approximately 1,143 km, it is the longest river in Indonesia, and is the major river of the western portion of Borneo. It is also the world's longest river on an island. confirms Reece's contention that the existence of thehonorific in Sarawak may be tied closely to its ubiquity in the Kapuasdrainage. The close, but largely unexplored, links between north coastpolities and those along the Kapuas would suggest sharing of a number ofother cultural elements as well--other honorifics, perhaps, like dayangand adi. Indeed, the low-lying watershed (now the international border)and broad rivers on the south side have promoted considerablenorth-south intercourse, a fact which led the Dutch to worry about theinfluence of James Brooke For the American journalist, see .The Rajah of Sarawak, Sir James Brooke, KCB, LL.D (29 April 1803 – 11 June 1868) was a British statesman. His father Thomas Brooke was English; his mother Anna Maria was born in Hertfordshire, England, the daughter of Scottish peer on their territorial claims (Wadley 2001). (6)Within the middle and upper Kapuas kingdoms, with the exception ofSintang and Silat, abang occurs frequently, especially as a title for"everyday" use. It seems to have been pushed out in favor ofincreasingly more elaborate monikers over the years, under the influenceof both Islam and Dutch succession ceremonies that seemed to favor suchthings. In addition, the retention of abang among lesser nobles into thelate nineteenth century would seem to confirm the "everyday"nature of the term and its decline among the rulers. Acknowledgements The research on which this paper is based was funded by theInternational Institute for Asian Studies Asian studies is a field in cultural studies that is concerned with the Asian peoples, their cultures and languages. Within the Asian sphere, Asian studies combines aspects of sociology, and cultural anthropology to study cultural phenomena in Asian traditional and industrial (Netherlands, 1998-2001) andsponsored in Indonesia by the Center for International Forestry Research The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) an international research institution committed to conserving forests and improving the livelihoods of people in the tropics by helping farmers and communities gain from forest resources. It is based in Bogor, Indonesia. (2000). Thanks to Bob Reece, Jim Collins, Michael Collins, Michael,1890–1922, Irish revolutionary leader. He spent the years from 1907 to 1916 in England, during which period he joined the Fenian movement. He took part in the Easter Rebellion in Dublin in 1916 and was imprisoned for the rest of the year. Laffan, AnnabelGallop, and Oona Paredes (for putting me in contact with Laffan andGallop). References Cited Enthoven, J. K. K. 1903 Bijdragen tot de Geographic vanBorneo's Wester-afdeeling. Volumes I and II. Leiden: Brill Brillor Bril,Flemish painters, brothers.Mattys Brill (mä`tīs), 1550–83, went to Rome early in his career and executed frescoes for Gregory XIII in the Vatican. . Reece, Bob n.d. The Origins of the Sarawak Abang. To appear in avolume edited by James Chin James (Jim) Chin has been a public health epidemiologist for close to a half century. His work has entailed field research, program management, and teaching, mostly in public health surveillance and prevention of communicable diseases. . Smith, F. Andrew 2005 Anthony Richards and the Search for Lawai:Myths, Maps, and History. Borneo Research Bulletin 36:51-67. Wadley, Reed L. 2001 Trouble on the Frontier On the Frontier: A Melodrama in Two Acts, by W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood, was the third and last play in the Auden-Isherwood collaboration, first published in 1938. : Dutch-BrookeRelations and Iban Rebellion in the West Borneo Borderlands (1841-1886).Modern Asian Studies 35 (3):623-44. 2002 The History of Displacement and Forced Settlement in WestKalimantan, Indonesia: Implications for Co-managing Danau SentarumWildlife Reserve. In: D. Chatty chat��ty?adj. chat��ti��er, chat��ti��est1. Inclined to chat; friendly and talkative.2. Full of or in the style of light informal talk: a chatty letter. and M. Colchester, eds., Conservationand Indigenous Mobile Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement andSustainable Development Sustainable development is a socio-ecological process characterized by the fulfilment of human needs while maintaining the quality of the natural environment indefinitely. The linkage between environment and development was globally recognized in 1980, when the International Union . Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 313-28. 2003 Lines in the Forest: Internal Territorialization ter��ri��to��ri��al��ize?tr.v. ter��ri��to��ri��al��ized, ter��ri��to��ri��al��iz��ing, ter��ri��to��ri��al��iz��es1. To make a territory of; organize as a territory.2. To extend by adding territory. and LocalAccommodation in West Kalimantan, Indonesia (1865-1979). South East Asia East AsiaA region of Asia coextensive with the Far East.East Asian adj. & n. Research 11 (1):91-112. 2004 Punitive Expeditions and Divine Revenge: Oral and ColonialHistories of Rebellion and Pacification PacificationPain (See SUFFERING.)Aegirsea god, stiller of storms on the ocean. [Norse Myth. in Western Borneo, 1886-1902.Ethnohistory eth��no��his��to��ry?n.The study of especially native or non-Western peoples from a combined historical and anthropological viewpoint, using written documents, oral literature, material culture, and ethnographic data. 51(3):609-36. Reed L. Wadley Department of Anthropology University of Missouri-Columbia Columbia MO 65211 USA (1) The spread of Islam This article is about followers of the Islamic faith. For territories under Muslim rule, see Muslim conquests. The spread of Islam began shortly after Muhammad's death in 632. into the interior was indeed slow: In 1823,Hartmann observed of the "poor" upper Kapuas rulers, that theywere far from the teachings of Mohamed ("Deze arme vorstjes verreafzijn de leer van Mohamed") despite their claims to being Muslim;Register der Handelingen en verrigtingen van de Provisionele Gezaghebberter Westkust Borneo, C. Hartmann, Pontianak, 23 mei 1823 t/m 13 augustus1825, Department of Historical Documentation, Koninklijk Instituut voorTaal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. (2) Algemeen Verslag, Afdeeling Sintang, 1856, submitted by H. vonGaffron, 28 February 1857: West Borneo Inventory No. 45/Doc. No. 17,Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (ANRI ANRI Animal and Natural Resources InstituteANRI Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (National Archives of Republic Indonesia)ANRI Anthony Nolan Research Institute ), Jakarta. (3) What is most curious about these lists is that they do notmatch up well with subsequent records (e.g., Enthoven 1903); whether theresult of changed names or bad information, it is impossible to tell. (4) This item is strictly an heirloom and was not used in thecollection of rice taxes; the Emperan Iban at this time were taxeddirectly by the Dutch authorities and had never been under thejurisdiction of Selimbau or any other Malay polity (Wadley 2004). (5) Collins notes that variants apa and apa' are in widespreaduse among non-Ibanic languages throughout West Kalimantan, and I haveheard apa 'among Emperan Iban in address to adult males in paternalor avuncular a��vun��cu��lar?adj.1. Of or having to do with an uncle.2. Regarded as characteristic of an uncle, especially in benevolence or tolerance. roles. (6) These geographic facts--the low-lying watershed and broadrivers on the south side--appear to have been one of the keys to thedevelopment of over a dozen small polities along the Kapuas, no one ofthem being able to control the entire river system or even largestretches of it. Points of access to the north coast and what is nowCentral Kalimantan Central Kalimantan (Indonesian: Kalimantan Tengah often abbreviated to Kalteng) is a province of Indonesia, one of four in Kalimantan - the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its provincial capital is Palangkaraya.The province has a population of 1. were numerous and hard to monitor. It was not untilthe Dutch brought steamships in the 1860s and started regular patrolsthat this native advantage began to disappear.