Introduction: trends and questions in new historical accounts of policing.

Introduction: trends and questions in new historical accounts of policing. Historical studies about aspects of urban life seldom recount thepast with detachment from the concerns of the present. Some areas ofinquiry about the past shield themselves from contemporary relevance,thereby risking a slide into antiquarianism an��ti��quar��i��an?n.One who studies, collects, or deals in antiquities.adj.1. Of or relating to antiquarians or to the study or collecting of antiquities.2. Dealing in or having to do with old or rare books. . At the other extreme,historical scholarship that is too keenly aware of the present riskslooking foolish after the fad or concern which inspired or guided it hascome and gone. This dilemma of whether or not to associate current andpast events cannot be a real one for the history of policing; it wouldbe difficult to imagine historical accounts of criminal justice withinurban areas that could be detached from the present. There also aremisconceptions in criminology concerning the historical functions ofpolicing. There is an even more compelling reason for allowingcontemporary concerns to edge into the history of policing. Policeadministrators in many large Canadian urban centres have initiatededucational programmes, hired university graduates, and generallyrecognized the value of education. Police forces and the new types ofconstables and officers require well-researched and critically balancedstudies that are pertinent to these initiatives. And historians likethose who have contributed to this issue of UHR/RHU are able to providesuch a service; they have ideas that take policing history far beyondthe undigested tidbits TidBITS is an award-winning electronic newsletter and web site dealing primarily with Apple Computer and Macintosh-related topics. Internet publicationTidBITS has been published weekly since April 16, 1990, which makes it one of the longest running Internet publications. and lists filling spaces between the photographsin commemorative and souvenir histories of urban forces. (1) Efforts to link the past and present of crime and policing in thecity must be encouraged because current assumptions about the sourcesand presumed growth of crime, or about the traditions and functions ofpolicing have been shown to be wide of the mark when tested byhistorical inquiry. Roger Lane, for example, challenged the simplistic sim��plism?n.The tendency to oversimplify an issue or a problem by ignoring complexities or complications.[French simplisme, from simple, simple, from Old French; see simple notion that as "urbanization and industrialization industrializationProcess of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and " progressedso did violent crime and violent deaths. (2) Later, Eric Monkkonen wouldpoint out, in response to a social control interpretation of the growthof policing, that the city governments that adopted and expanded policeforces in the mid-nineteenth century were not so much driven by moralreform groups and citzens fearful of riot and dangerous neighbourhoodsas by an urge to have a symbol of modern urban government. (3) In thefirst article in this volume, Michael McCulloch reviews these and othertrends in historical analysis and notes the limitations of models whenapplied to specific cases. Besides his lucid description of anintrinsically interesting case, what he has to say about early policingin Quebec City prepares the way for a theme in several studies thatfollow: an expanding set of duties taxed relatively small forces. Monkkonen, whose work had set a new agenda for police history inthe United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , found that the city police in the United States hadrecieved little credit in scholarly histories for their management ofhostels for transients and the underemployed un��der��em��ployed?adj.1. Employed only part-time when one needs and desires full-time employment.2. Inadequately employed, especially employed at a low-paying job that requires less skill or training than one possesses. , and for the care of lostor runaway children. (4) Greg Marquis has discovered the same activitiesin the Toronto force. (5) The deeper one looks into the history of apolice force the more one is impressed by the number of unheraldedfunctions. The implications of police action with respect to thehomeless or to lost children are many. "Apparently, the policeresponse had been sufficient to encourage the escalation of the demands,as well as demonstrate the feasibility and responsibility of thegovernment's providing a more orderly urban existence for ordinarypeople." (6) Due to the important condition that both in the UnitedStates and in Canada policing long remained largely a civic function andfree from central government control, penny-pinching city councilsloaded them with interesting duties that stemmed from the originalmeaning of police. Concurrently, the complicated mission of keeping peace in the cityput constables into the vanguard of social service activity in the yearsbefore the Salvation Army Salvation Army,Protestant denomination and international nonsectarian Christian organization for evangelical and philanthropic work.Organization and BeliefsThe Salvation Army has established branches in 100 countries throughout the world. or social workers took over welfare functions.The actions of police constables in domestic disputes is one such socialservice with a continuous history as a policing function. It is onefunction of many that requires more study; Kathryn Harvey's articlein this issue provides an excellent starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting pointterminus a quocommencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the by raising a questionabout the ability or will of the police to prosecute. She found thatmore than 10 per cent of cases of wife beating reported in the MontrealStar were dropped because the victim failed to substantiate the charge.The challenge will be to locate police records that permit systematicstudy of the history of the violence against women and of the policeresponse to it. Already this timely and evocative article illustratesthe consequences of an awful mix of poverty, frustration, domestictyrrany, and alcohol. Who was reluctant to prosecute men who beat women:the victims or the police? Were there differences across time and fromplace to place? How should society act--through new police measures,stronger laws, or both--in order to counter such a persistent and uglycrime? Pressure groups are calling on the police for more protection ofwomen and the police are calling for tougher laws. The rounded full accounts of the police that document helpfulduties by these paid citizens cannot explain away those occasions whenconstables swung their clubs during strikes and political demonstrationsor seized broadsides and surpressed meetings. Sometimes corporatetactics drew in the police against labour, but there certainly have beenepisodes in Canada when the initiatives against political movements onthe left came from the officers in charge of a police force. However,the new accounts of policing have given back to the police parts oftheir history that their crime-fighting mythology and their critics hadpassed over. In the words of Greg Marquis, "the municipal police,particularly in towns with a strong labour prescence, were not alwaysthe villains encountered in labour and working classhistoriography". (7) Nicholas Rogers has written similarly aboutthe Toronto police in the nineteenth century. "There was littleresistance within the working class as a whole to the notion of apoliced society." (8) Whether it is a question of idiotic troublemaking by borish bigotsabout headgear--it changed often in the nineteenth century and thecurrent forms are scarcely "Canadian" or sanctified sanc��ti��fy?tr.v. sanc��ti��fied, sanc��ti��fy��ing, sanc��ti��fies1. To set apart for sacred use; consecrate.2. To make holy; purify.3. bytradition--or more substantial concerns about firearms and racism,discussions concerning the police can be clarified by documenteddiscussions that include origins and evolution. There are grounds forfinding in the historical composition and conduct of the policeexpressions of racism or religious bigotry. The Protestant character ofthe Toronto and Hamilton forces and the Masonic connections on theToronto force were not accidental. As Nicholas Rogers has established,the Toronto police in the late Victorian era had the attributes of acaste apart. (9) Were all urban forces so conscious of the British modelof autonomy and so deliberate in their recruitment from the UnitedKingdom? There may be quibbles about whether station house culture wasfully detached from the wider working-class experience of Toronto, butthere is evidence of the police forming or accepting views about asocial order based on physical and cultural stereotypes. The late nineteenth-century foundations of crime prevention anddetection largely rested upon superficial concepts about physiognomy physiognomy/phys��i��og��no��my/ (fiz?e-og��nah-me)1. determination of mental or moral character and qualities by the face.2. the countenance, or face.3. .With themselves--Angloceltic males selected for their brawn brawn?n.1. Solid and well-developed muscles, especially of the arms and legs.2. Muscular strength and power.3. Chiefly British The meat of a boar.4. Headcheese. andinspected for neatness--as ideals, constables and detectives wereinstructed to watch for non-conformity and to learn from streetexperience. A history of the implications of a "street-wise"education in policing has been written for the United States; David R.Johnson's unusual work is filled with useful insights and ought tobe read by anyone interested in police culture. (10) Canadian newspaperreports on police courts provide abundant evidence of the dubiousconsequences of policing activities which divided urban society into"them" and "us." Vice raids on ethnicgroups--against Chinese men for gambling and Italians for drinking inboarding houses--in the early 1900s are worth noting, but perhaps nomore so than the racial slurs of the reporters who gleefully glee��ful?adj.Full of jubilant delight; joyful.gleeful��ly adv.glee recountedthese episodes and presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. conveyed the popular opinions of themajority of Canadians. In the words of Rod Macleod, writing about theNorth-West Mounted Police Mounted police are police who patrol on horseback. They continue to serve in remote areas and in metropolitan areas where their day-to-day function may be largely picturesque or ceremonial, but they are also employed in crowd control. to 1905, the techniques of the police withrespect to problems involving minority groups "were tailored to asociety which had definite and strongly held beliefs about the place ofminorities in the social order." (11) These beliefs have changed. Police information concerning the marginalized groups that theyswept up in vice raids early in this century were based largely onracist views widespread in the British Empire British Empire,overseas territories linked to Great Britain in a variety of constitutional relationships, established over a period of three centuries. The establishment of the empire resulted primarily from commercial and political motives and emigration movements , reformers' tracts,and the pseudo-science of criminology. (12) By narrow recruiting fromone--albeit numerically dominant--cultural group, the police had deniedthemselves an understanding of many new ethnic groups. Never-the-less,they had a duty to all citizens and--in Hamilton and Toronto atleast--were instructed to refrain from expressing offensive political orreligious views. Whether they did or not is another question. GregMarquis discovered that Toronto's "'non-politicalpolicemen were regarded as an important electoral force." (13) Aspects of their background must have contradicted some of the lorethat informed them about who might be a "deviant"; their ownrecreational habits often seem to have taken constables into the veryareas and practices they were to find offensive. Surely too, some sawmore of the good and evil of all groups than simplistic social theoriesallowed. Or did they? How did the definition of beats and the decisionto police suburbs by responding to complaints rather than by frequentpatrols influence the perceptions of crime and disorder? How familiarwere the police with white-collar crime white-collar crime,term coined by Edward Sutherland for nonviolent crimes committed by corporations or individuals such as office workers or sales personnel (see white-collar workers) in the course of their business activities. ? Why, where, and how far haveconditions implied by these questions changed? A study of minority grouphiring practices, of human rights concerns on the force, and ofrecognition of community relations 1. The relationship between military and civilian communities.2. Those public affairs programs that address issues of interest to the general public, business, academia, veterans, Service organizations, military-related associations, and other non-news media entities. issues would be welcome additions tothe study of urban policing in this century. This short outline ofpotential themes for study treats lightly the years after 1920; yetformal training, science and detection, the handling of labour disputes,and the treatment of minorities are subjects that belong to the veryrecent past but should not be neglected by historians. If the issues raised by the historical accounts fail to resolveinto tidy conclusions about the police as domestic missionaries, thenthe message of complexity cautions against our stereotyping the police.We should be cautious as citizens because the record of the police as acrime fighting Crime FightingSee also Sleuthing.Batmandevotes his life to fighting Gotham City’s criminals. [Comics: Berger, 160]Canadian Mounties agency is a complex one. One of the basic presumed rolesof the police today--its crime prevention and crime fighting--haverarely been appraised except in the anecdotal recounting of famouscases. What little contemporary and historical data exist on thissubject suggests that an extraordinary percentage of crimes areunsolved. Violent acts committed against persons leave witnesses andthey assist greatly, but the lack of witnesses is one of severalobstacles to the solution of thefts. Another obstacle is the sheerfrequency of minor property crimes. (14) Historically, police forces have listened to and recorded the smallcrimes against common folk, but they have concentrated theirinvestigative efforts on large thefts and their protective resources oninfluential citizens or corporations. From its beginning, the Hamiltonforce checked the doors of shop owners. The police commission laterresisted having constables under its direction assigned to acorporation, but by the late 1920s--perhaps earlier--uniformed officerswere sent out to protect payrolls. Yet no association between the growthof corporate enterprise and the growth of police forces can be found.From the 1850s to the 1950s, the Hamilton force kept its numbers in linewith the ratio of one member of the force for every thousand citizens.Besides, it was the automobile and not payrolls which effected arevolution in policing during the 1920s. To return to the question ofthe efficacy of the police as crime fighters The first in a trilogy of beat 'em ups by Konami. It was followed by Vendetta and Violent Storm. The players must rescue several beautiful women who have been kidnapped by an evil kingpin. , historical or contemporaryevidence of their impotence is countered by posing the counterfactualinstance: what if there were no police? The possibility of a deterrentvalue--impossible to prove or disprove--has been cited by one ambitiousstudy on crime as a factor in the decline of reported theft innineteenth-century England. (15) It is profitable to think of policing as work that, thoughsometimes including actions on behalf of capitalist industrialism in��dus��tri��al��ism?n.An economic and social system based on the development of large-scale industries and marked by the production of large quantities of inexpensive manufactured goods and the concentration of employment in urban factories. andenforcement of measures hostile to organized labour, was labour itselfand modified by factors similar to those operating in foundry,printshop, or railroad. An account of how police work was organizedwould add to what is already understood about social structure andchange from studies on assorted crafts. The work of policing, like allwork between the 1880s and the 1920s, experienced efficiency campaignsand felt promptly the impact of technology. City councils and policecommissions were cost conscious. It had taken many decades of writingabout the police before they were to be treated as workers instead ofthe instruments of the workers' oppression. The notion that thepolice were also workers and not just the antagonists of workers wasignored until Greg Marquis's article about the "workingmen inuniform;" this article considered the origins of the Toronto forcein the early twentieth century and located its social activities in the"matrix" of working-class culture. The implications thatMarquis pursued are significant, for he then tackled the subject of the"exaggerated masculinity" of the station atmosphere. (16) Not only were the police from the working class, but in the lateVictorian era they were under instructions to watch street life, tocheck taverns, and to note the location of houses of ill fame andgambling establishments. Background and work instructions drew--and maycontinue to draw--many into activities that their offical code ofconduct prohibited. Some behaved with such variations in conduct thatthe moral missionary role ascribed to the police by British historianswriting about the 1840s may breakdown under examination ofconstables' conduct on the beat. Robert Storch, who proposed thatthe police in the industrial districts of Northern England Northern England, The North or North of England is a rather ill-defined term, with no universally accepted definition. Its extent may be subject to personal opinion and many companies or organisations have differing definitions as to what it constitutes. acted asdomestic missionaries, also concluded that they failed. (17)Working-class culture was not readily overcome. That may be, but in thecase of Canadian city police the interactions of police culture andworking-class culture seem more complicated. Different Canadiancommunities at different points in time could have haddomestic-missionary police forces: Toronto under the administration ofthe activist mayor William Howland in the mid-1880s comes to mind. (18)However, in Hamilton where one chief in the 1890s visited the bordellosof Toronto "the good" while another in the early 1900s hadfrequented "Jennie Kennedy's house" in his youth,different outlooks may have governed the force. Peter McGahan'scollection of documents on Atlantic Canadian forces has produced similarevidence of the police as compromised missionaries. (19) The beat was the constable's shopfloor; his patrol sergeant,the foreman. (20) Until the early 1880s in Hamilton, the constables leftfor the beat from their places of residence and had exerciseddiscretion, particular with respect to the enforcement of city bylaws.They lingered here and there, breaking up the monotony of the walk withgossip. From time to time they violated rules by downing a beer at atavern, taking a snooze in a cozy spot in an alley, napping a privy,resting on a porch while on night duty, or playing a hand of cards in aback shed on Sunday duty. From time to time a sergeant caught them orsomeone complained, but supervision was light. Detectives revelled ineven greater independence. Since they retained rewards, they keptinformation to themselves and struck deals on stolen property thatsatisfied the victim, the thief, but not the law. When a new regime ofpolicing insisted that the constables report to the station forinspection before going on the beat and that they be marched out to thebeat under the command of patrol sergeants, the men threatened to strikeand when that failed some left the force. When the detectives found thatthey had to report to the chief daily and operate under orders, theyresisted and were sacked. By 1885, the Hamilton force had passed through a major shakeup shake��up?n.A thorough, often drastic reorganization, as of the personnel in a business or government.Noun 1. shakeup thatput constables under close supervision. They complained that the newsystem sped them along their beats so quickly that they could not keep aproper watch on things. Meanwhile, technology assisted the managmenteffort to make certain the men on the beat walked approxiamately 20miles per shift. The city installed call boxes in the late 1880s and thepoint of these was make certain that the constables reached points ontheir beat. By having the men report on themselves, the call boxes savedon the number of supervisory personnel required. The Hamilton police commission, after considering the methods ofseveral police forces in the United States, introduced another economymeasure into policing and became the first Canadian force with a patrolwagon. The idea was that instead of providing suburban beats, the patrolwagon would respond to calls for aid; other departments had used horsepatrols, but the Hamilton department's information from the UnitedStates claimed that the wagon was faster and easier on the horse. Itcould also double as an ambulance. Telephone call boxes replaced theelectric signal system, but the nature of policing continued to centreon the beat and the patrol until the spread of automobile ownership Automobile ownership is the sum of all the aspects associated with owning an automobile. In developed countries owning an automobile has become very common because it is a widely available form of transportation. during the 1920s. First, the force secured motorcycles and thenautomobiles. Beats continued, but by the late 1930s, radio-directed carsexpanded the experiment in economy of the horse-drawn patrol wagon untilit was at least as important to the force as the beat. And, like thecall boxes, the radio kept the constables under supervision from afar.The car changed policing in other ways too. Police work after 1920became over-whelmed with infractions against the provincial motorvehicle act and city bylaws. When walking the beat was not dull--which it was most of the timeunless the rules of conduct were evaded--it could be dangerous. Armedwith a baton but not firearms until 1906, Hamilton constables exercisedcaution in many situations; they were under orders to use their batonsonly in self-defense (Law) in protection of self, - it being permitted in law to a party on whom a grave wrong is attempted to resist the wrong, even at the peril of the life of the assailiant.- Wharton.See also: Self-defense and even then seem to have refrained whensurrounded by a crowd that was at best neutral. The decisions to equipforces with firearms and complaints about the use of excessive force bythe police are topics that might be considered in future studies ofCanadian policing, especially given the ceaseless comparisons andcontrasts between Canadian and American cities and assumptions about thecultural basis of differences. A final thought about future directions for the history of policingtakes us to the beginnings of policing, the elusive meaning of police,and an error in criminology that history can correct. The error is theassumption that "historically the role of the police has been toenforce the law especially the criminal law. But this role is changingand changing drastically." (21) The author of thisstatement--unaware of the long-standing status of the police as"front-line social workers" (22)--felt that the frustrationsof being a contemporary police officer must be unique to our age. Boththe variety of social service functions and the dilemmas of being aconstable were present from the beginning or strongly implied in theconcept of police. In the early nineteenth century, English and American usage of"police" agreed, although on both sides of the Atlantic theword had many meanings; at root, civil organization was implied. (23) Asa noun the police was a government of a town or city. Noah Webster gavethe example of "the police of London, of New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , of Boston".It could also mean the corp of men governing the town or city. Themodern notion of the police as a civil force may have been used first in1798, in reference to a private group organized to protect Thamesshipping. By the 1830s, this meaning had become as common as that whichmeant civic government. Related words or attributes like policeman,police constable, and police department were all launched early in thenineteenth century. The older civic government concept persisted, although this meaningof police seems strange and archaic today. During the nineteenthcentury, the civic police with their diverse responsibilities to theirtown or city had a rich and positive label that accorded well with whatthey were to do within the community: keep the streets clear, enforcethe market rules, inspect civic licenses, preserve order, protectpersons and property. This form of police, then, had local roots andlegitimacy and was unlike the English police system that put theconstabulary under the control of the Home Office. In Canada, centralgovernments tried at least three times (immediately following therebellion of 1837, again in 1856, and in 1873 with the founding of theNorth-West Mounted Police) to create "national" forces on themodel of the Royal Irish Constabulary The Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) (Irish: Const��blacht R��oga na h��ireann) was one of Ireland's two police forces in the early twentieth century, alongside the Dublin Metropolitan Police. . The first time, after therebellions, an experiment was tried and forces partrolled thecountryside of Lower Canada Lower Canada:see Quebec, province, Canada. and the Upper Canadian border with theUnited States. The second time, the bill introduced by Attorney GeneralJohn A. Macdonald provoked opposition from liberals and the towns andcities that would have lost control over their local forces. The billdied and existing police forces remained under local authority; nationaland provincial forces were established later. Macdonald finally had hisway with the NWMP NWMP North West Mounted PoliceNWMP National Wildfire Mitigation Program and his thinking about policing on these occasions maywell be worth a review. In any event, the national and provincial forceswere not without civic roles. As Rod Macleod has documented, the NWMPalso performed "useful" services to rural settlers: lendingequipment, operating the first postal service postal service,arrangements made by a government for the transmission of letters, packages, and periodicals, and for related services. Early courier systems for government use were organized in the Persian Empire under Cyrus, in the Roman Empire, and in medieval in many areas, enforcingquarantine regulations, providing medical services, andissuing--sometimes at the personal expense of the officers--reliefsupplies to the destitute. (24) Police now has lost the older meaning, but as a branch of civicgovernment the police force has not shed the functions of civicregulation and protection. It seems worthwhile reminding civic policedepartments of their good old name when encouraging them to adopt goodnew outlooks to deal more effectively with their historic duties. Notes (1) A good example of the unsatisfactory results of criminologistswriting about the history of policing form the facts supplied bycommemorative histories is to be found in C.K. Talbot, C.H.S.Jayewardene, and T.J. Juliani, Canada's Constables: The HistoricalDevelopment of Policing in Canada (Ottawa: Crimecare, 1985). (2) Roger Lane, "Crime and Criminal Statistics inNineteenth-Century Massachusetts", Journal of Social History, 2(1969), 156-163; Violent Death in the City (Cambridge, Mass: HarvardUniversity Press The Harvard University Press is a publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. It was established on January 13, 1913. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. , 1979). Lane put history to the service of policy in"urab Homicide in the Nineteenth Century: Some Lessons for theTwentieth", History and Crime: Implications for Criminal JusticePolicy ed. by James Inciardi and Charles Faupel (Beverly Hills Beverly Hills,city (1990 pop. 31,971), Los Angeles co., S Calif., completely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles; inc. 1914. The largely residential city is home to many motion-picture and television personalities. : SagePublications This article or section needs sourcesorreferences that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article. , 1980) 91-109. (3) Eric Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). , 1981) 30-64. (4) Ibid., 86-128. (5) Greg Marquis, "The Police as a Social Service in EarlyTwentieth Century Toronto" (Unpublished Paper, April 1990). (6) Ibid., 128. (7) See his article in this issue. (8) Nicholas Rogers, "Serving Toronto the Good: TheDevelopment of the City Police Force, 1834-84", Forging aConsensus: Historical Essays on Toronto ed. by Victor Russell (Toronto:University of Toronto Research at the University of Toronto has been responsible for the world's first electronic heart pacemaker, artificial larynx, single-lung transplant, nerve transplant, artificial pancreas, chemical laser, G-suit, the first practical electron microscope, the first cloning of T-cells, Press, 1984), 135. (9) Ibid., 136. (10) David R. Johnson, Policing the Urban Underworld: The Impact ofCrime on the Development of American Policing, 1880-1887 (Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1979). (11) R.C. Macleod, The NWMP and Law Enforcement, 1873-1905(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), p. 160. (12) See for example Robert A. Huttenback, "No Strangerswithin the Gates: Attitudes and Policies towards the Non-White residentsof the British Empire of Settlement", The Journal of Imperial andCommonwealth History, vol. 1 (May 1973), 271-302. There is a finediscussion of physiognomy and pseudo-science in criminology in the latenineteenth century in William James Noun 1. William James - United States pragmatic philosopher and psychologist (1842-1910)James Forsythe, The Reform of Prisoners,1830-1900 (New York: St Martin's, 1987) 170-190. (13) Greg Marquis, "Workingmen in Uniform: The EarlyTwentieth-century Toronto Police", Histiore sociale/Social History,20 (November, 1987), 271. (14) John C. Weaver, "A Social History of Theft in Depressionand Wartime: The Police Occurrence Books for Hamilton",(unpublished Paper, December 1989). (15) V.A.C. Gatrell, "The Decline of Theft and Violence inVictorian and Edwardian England", Crime and the Law: The Socialhistory of Crime in Western Europe Western EuropeThe countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). since 1500 (London: EuropaPublications, 1980) 238-333. (16) Greg Marquis, "Workingmen in Uniform: The EarlyTwentieth-century Toronto Police", Histoire sociale/Social History,20 (November, 1987), 270. (17) Robert Storch, "The Plague of the Blue Locusts: PoliceReform and the Popular Resitance in Northern England, 1840-57,"International Review of Social History, 20 (1975), 90. (18) Desmond Morton There are several people named Desmond Morton: Desmond Morton (officer), a British military officer and government official Desmond Morton (historian), a Canadian historian , Mayor Howland: The Citizens' Candidate(Toronto: Hakkert, 1973) 30-1. (19) Peter McGahan, Crime and Policing in Maritime Canada(Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions Ltd., 1988) 115-130. (20) Marquis, "Workingmen in Uniform", 273. (21) J.A. Blake, "The Role of the Police in Society", ThePolice Function in Canada ed. by William T. McGrath and Michael Mitchell Michael Mitchell is an indigenous former Australian rules footballer for the Claremont Football Club in the WAFL and the Richmond Football Club in the VFL/AFL. He achieved All-Australian selection in 1985 and 1986, while playing with Claremont. (Toronto: Methuen, 1981), 77. This is a fine, progressive, and usefularticle, but it does have a false notion about the functions of civicpolice historically and the public and police need to have better senseof the continuities in policing. (22) Ibid., 78. (23) Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language(1828), vol. 2, (New York and London: Johnson Reprint Corporation,1970). Also see Oxford English Dictionary Oxford English Dictionary(OED) great multi-volume historical dictionary of English. [Br. Hist.: Caught in the Web of Words]See : Lexicography . (24) The NWMP and Law Enforcement, 34-5.