Is there a bidirectional relationship between children's reading skills and reading motivation?

Is there a bidirectional relationship between children's reading skills and reading motivation? Children who read frequently grow to become skillful skill��ful?adj.1. Possessing or exercising skill; expert. See Synonyms at proficient.2. Characterized by, exhibiting, or requiring skill. readers (e.g.,Guthrie, Schafer, & Huang, 2001; Juel, 1988; Senechal & LeFevre,2002; Stanovich, 1986). Frequent reading contributes to growth in sightword recognition, vocabulary, verbal fluency flu��ent?adj.1. a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages.b. , reading comprehension comprehensionAct of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. , andgeneral knowledge (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1991; Echols, West,Stanovich, & Zehr, 1996; Griffiths & Snowling, 2002; Guthrie etal., 2001; Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999; Leppanen,Aunola, & Nurmi, 2005; Senechal, LeFevre, Hudson, & Lawson,1996). For example, Leppanen et al. reported a path coefficient Path coefficients are linear regression weights expressing the causal linkage between statistical variables in the structural equation modeling approach. External links and referenceswww2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/path. of .13between children's book reading frequency in first grade and theirword recognition skills in second grade. Cunningham and Stanovich (1997)found that reading practice accounted for 34% of the variance in 11thgraders' vocabulary scores after their 1st grade vocabulary,nonverbal non��ver��bal?adj.1. Being other than verbal; not involving words: nonverbal communication.2. Involving little use of language: a nonverbal intelligence test. IQ, and comprehension skills were statistically controlled. Given sufficient print resources (e.g., Neuman, 1999; Neuman &Celano, 2001), how often a child reads is explained by two factors(e.g., Cox & Guthrie, 2001; Paris & Turner, 1994). The first isinitial success in acquiring reading skills (Stanovich, 1986).Cunningham and Stanovich (1997) found that measures of first gradereading ability predicted 10% of the variance in 11th graders'reading practice after statistically controlling for the children'sreading comprehension skills as 11th graders. The second factor ismotivation (e.g., Pressley, 2002; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Wigfieldand Guthrie (1997) reported that highly motivated mo��ti��vate?tr.v. mo��ti��vat��ed, mo��ti��vat��ing, mo��ti��vatesTo provide with an incentive; move to action; impel.mo children read threetimes as much outside of school as their less motivated peers. Guthrieet al. (1999) found that motivation significantly predicted amount ofreading practice after statistically controlling for prior readingachievement. These and other results led Guthrie et al. to conclude thatmotivation is the "preeminent pre��em��i��nentor pre-em��i��nent ?adj.Superior to or notable above all others; outstanding. See Synonyms at dominant, noted.[Middle English, from Latin prae predictor" (p. 250) of frequentreading. Unfortunately, poor readers--the children most likely to benefitfrom frequent practice--are often unmotivated to read (e.g., Chapman,1988; Lepola, Vauras, & Maki, 2000). This lack of motivation can beseen within a year or so of school entry (Chapman, Tunmer, &Prochnow, 2000; Lepola, Poskiparta, Laakkonen, & Niemi, 2005;McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995). For example, Morgan, Fuchs,Compton, Cordray, and Fuchs (in press) found that low-skilled firstgraders (a) considered reading to be difficult, (b) viewed themselves asless competent readers, and (c) held more negative attitudes towardsreading than high-skilled peers. Teachers rated the low-skilled readersas more avoidant of classroom reading activities. Because of its link toreading practice, poor readers' lack of motivation is increasinglysuggested as an underlying cause of long-term reading difficulties(e.g., Baker, 2000; Gambrell & Morrow mor��row?n.1. The following day: resolved to set out on the morrow.2. The time immediately subsequent to a particular event.3. Archaic The morning. , 1996; Pressley, 2002; Quirk quirk?n.1. A peculiarity of behavior; an idiosyncrasy: "Every man had his own quirks and twists"Harriet Beecher Stowe.2. & Schwanenflugel, 2004; Stanovich, 1986; Wigfield, 2000). Indeed,teachers indicate one of their most pressing concerns is to find ways toboost reading motivation (Allen, Schockley, & Baumann, 1995). One frequently studied explanation of poor readers' lack ofmotivation posits a bidirectional The ability to move, transfer or transmit in both directions. causal causal/cau��sal/ (kaw��z'l) pertaining to, involving, or indicating a cause. causalrelating to or emanating from cause. relationship between readingskills and motivation. Children lose motivation to read because of theirrepeated failure to acquire requisite skills (e.g., Aunola, Leskinen,Onatsu-Arvilommi, & Nurmi, 2002; Chapman et al., 2000). In thisvein, Stanovich (1986) hypothesizes that these reading difficulties leadto "behavioral/cognitive/motivational spinoffs" (p. 389), or"negative Matthew effects" (p. 360). Because these negativeMatthew effects interact to discourage children from reading frequently,they lead to a "poor-get-poorer" situation. Low motivationthus acts both as a consequence of limited skill acquisition and as acause of later reading failure (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999; Oldfather& Wigfield, 1996; Scarborough & Dobrich, 1994). Are poor readers doubly disadvantaged in that they soon begin tolag behind their peers in both "skill" and "will"?If so, then their poor reading skills and low reading motivation maybegin to influence each other (Stanovich, 1986). Such a negative cyclecould help explain why many children with disabilities continueexperiencing long-term reading failure despite receiving intensiveskills-focused remediation. Understanding why many poor readers arepoorly motivated to read also has important implications for earlyintervention ear��ly interventionn. Abbr. EIA process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. . If young children are under-motivated because of repeatedfailure in acquiring reading skills, then this would suggest focusingprimarily on remediating their skill deficits. Conversely con��verse?1?intr.v. con��versed, con��vers��ing, con��vers��es1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak.2. , if poormotivation arises from altogether different factors (e.g., aparent's own views towards reading), then this would suggest a needto employ early interventions that demonstrably de��mon��stra��ble?adj.1. Capable of being demonstrated or proved: demonstrable truths.2. Obvious or apparent: demonstrable lies. remediate re��me��di��a��tion?n.The act or process of correcting a fault or deficiency: remediation of a learning disability.re��me both skill-and motivation-specific deficits. Understanding whether and how weak reading skills and lowmotivation interrelate in��ter��re��late?tr. & intr.v. in��ter��re��lat��ed, in��ter��re��lat��ing, in��ter��re��latesTo place in or come into mutual relationship.in is especially pressing to help children withspecial needs, as so many of them are poor readers (e.g., NationalAssessment of Educational Progress, 2005; Nelson, Benner, Lane, &Smith, 2004). Moreover, children with learning and behavioraldisabilities tend to be less motivated to engage in academic activitiesthan their nondisabled peers (e.g., Chapman, 1988; Fulk, Brigham, &Lohman, 1998). The potential interaction between weak reading skills andlow motivation to read is viewed as one reason why children withdisabilities so consistently underperform UnderperformAn analyst recommendation that means a stock is expected to do slightly worse than the market return.Also known as market underperform, moderate sell, or weak hold. academically (e.g., Stanovich,1986; Torgesen, 1982; Torgesen et al., 1999). PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW This review evaluated existing evidence of a bidirectionalrelationship between reading skills acquisition and motivation. Tobetter weigh how well findings from the available studies indicated thepossible existence of a bidirectional relationship (Cohen cohenor kohen(Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , Cohen, West,& Aiken, 2003; Kenny; 1979), we asked three questions: * How strongly do children's reading skills correlateconcurrently with their reading motivation? * How strongly do (a) early differences in their acquisition ofreading skills predict later differences in their motivation and (b)early differences in children's motivation predict laterdifferences in their reading skills? * Have the effects of potentially confounding confoundingwhen the effects of two, or more, processes on results cannot be separated, the results are said to be confounded, a cause of bias in disease studies.confounding factor factors been isolatedin analyses of the reading skill-reading motivation relationship? METHOD INDICATORS OF CHILDREN'S READING MOTIVATION It is difficult to establish an empirical relationship In science, an empirical relationship is one based solely on observation rather than theory. An empirical relationship requires only confirmatory data irrespective of theoretical basis. betweengrowth in reading skills and reading motivation. There are at leastthree reasons for this. First, theoretical (e.g., Eccles, Wigfield,& Schiefele, 1998; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000; Wigfield, 1997) andapplied (e.g., Sweet, Guthrie, & Ng, 1998; Wigfield & Guthrie,1997) work suggests that motivation is a complex, multidimensionalfactor. It is hard to measure (Watkins & Coffey; 2004). Second, fewstudies (e.g., Baker & Scher, 2002; Gottfried, 1990) have usedstatistical analysis to validate To prove something to be sound or logical. Also to certify conformance to a standard. Contrast with "verify," which means to prove something to be correct.For example, data entry validity checking determines whether the data make sense (numbers fall within a range, numeric data that children's self-reportsreflect their motivation to read rather than their willingness to engagein other academic subjects. Without establishing domain specificity Domain-specificity is a theoretical position in cognitive science (especially modern cognitive development) that argues that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices. , itis difficult to isolate isolate/iso��late/ (i��sah-lat)1. to separate from others.2. a group of individuals prevented by geographic, genetic, ecologic, social, or artificial barriers from interbreeding with others of their kind. factors that may influence children'sinterest in reading. Third, researchers have sometimes inadvertentlycomplicated subsequent syntheses of their findings by (a) usingdifferent terms to refer to the same constructs (Baker & Scher), or(b) using the same terms to refer to different constructs (Guthrie &Wigfield, 2000). Our review evaluates a possible bidirectionalrelationship between reading and motivation by focusing on tworelatively distinct and well-established indicators of readingmotivation: competency beliefs and goal orientations. These twoindicators are increasingly linked within dynamic models of readingmotivation (e.g., Lepola et al., 2005; Nurmi & Aunola, 2005). Competency Beliefs. Competency beliefs are "estimates of howgood one is at a given activity" (Wigfield et al., 1997, p. 451).Here, they relate to whether a child considers himself or herselfcapable of being a good reader. Self-concept and self-efficacy are twotypes of competency beliefs (e.g., Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002).Self-concept refers to more general beliefs about one'scapabilities; self-efficacy refers to more task-specific beliefs.Competency beliefs are often the first indicator of youngchildren's motivation (Eccles et al., 1998). Gottfried (1990)argues that young children experiencing early task mastery should havehigher perceptions of competence and, consequently, greater motivation.Conversely, early declines in competency beliefs should precede declinesin motivation and, later, less frequent reading practice (Bandura ban`dur´an. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. , 1977;Chapman & Tunmer, 2003; Dweck, 1986). Some of the best evidence fordomain-specific motivation comes from research on children'scompetency beliefs (Eccles et al.; Wigfield, 1997). Goal Orientations. Achievement goals are "the purposeschildren have for achievement in different areas, so they deal directlywith the 'whys' of behavior" (Wigfield, 1997, p. 61).Goal orientations (as well as intrinsic intrinsic/in��trin��sic/ (in-trin��sik) situated entirely within or pertaining exclusively to a part. in��trin��sicadj.1. Of or relating to the essential nature of a thing.2. motivation) relate to whetherand why a child wants to be a good reader. Specifically, goalorientation marks a "set of behavioral intentions that determineshow students approach and engage in learning activities" (Meece,Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988, p. 514). Differences in children'sgoal orientations help explain their classroom behavior (e.g., Ames,1992, Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Meece et al., 1988; Meece & Holt holt?n. ArchaicA wood or grove; a copse.[Middle English, from Old English.]holtNounthe lair of an otter [from ,1993; Seifert & O'Keefe, 2001) and reading Performance (e.g.,Graham & Golan, 1991; Meece & Miller, 1999, 2001). Goalorientations can be domain-specific (Salonen, Lepola, & Niemi,1998); they can also be adaptive or maladaptive MaladaptiveUnsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation.Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (Elliot &Harackiewicz, 1996; Elliott & Dweck, 1988). Adaptive goalorientations lead to task-oriented behavior, whereas maladaptiveorientations lead to behaviors that are ego-defensive, sociallydependent, or task-avoidant (Ames; Poskiparta, Niemi, Lepola, Ahtola,& Laine, 2003). Maladaptive goal orientations lead children to avoidreading tasks as a means of "expressing their negative attitudestoward schoolwork, avoiding failure, or coping with the constraints CONSTRAINTS - A language for solving constraints using value inference.["CONSTRAINTS: A Language for Expressing Almost-Hierarchical Descriptions", G.J. Sussman et al, Artif Intell 14(1):1-39 (Aug 1980)]. anddemands of the learning situation" (Meece et al., p. 515). INCLUSION CRITERIA For Wikipedia's inclusion criteria, see: What Wikipedia is not.Inclusion criteria are a set of conditions that must be met in order to participate in a clinical trial. The reviewed studies had to meet a priori a prioriIn epistemology, knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to a posteriori (or empirical) knowledge, which derives from experience. criteria of germanenessand methodological adequacy. Given the relatively few empirical studies Empirical studies in social sciences are when the research ends are based on evidence and not just theory. This is done to comply with the scientific method that asserts the objective discovery of knowledge based on verifiable facts of evidence. of young children's reading motivation (Wigfield, 1997), ourcriteria were deliberately modest, or inclusive (Slavin, 1986). We accepted peer-reviewed, published studies in which authorsevaluated a relationship between reading skill level and either (a) areading-specific competency belief or (b) an achievement goalorientation in a preschool- or school-age sample. Studies evaluatingonly global or non-reading-specific competency beliefs (e.g.,mathematics self-concept) or non-achievement goals (e.g., problembehavior, social goals) were excluded. Studies exploring the influenceof non-school factors (e.g., parental beliefs) on the relationshipbetween reading skills acquisition and reading-specific competencybeliefs or academic goal orientation also were eliminated (e.g., Aunola,Nurmi, Niemi, Lerkkanen, & Rasku-Puttonen, 2002; Lynch, 2002;Onatsu-Arvilommi, Nurmi, & Aunola, 1998; Turner & Johnson,2003). Because we focussed on initial acquisition of reading skills, wechose studies involving children in preschool through second grade.However, we also included investigations that began with young childrenand followed them into third, fourth, fifth, or sixth grade. Finally, inthe selected studies, researchers used longitudinal lon��gi��tu��di��naladj.Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. , cross-sectional, orcontrol group designs. Case studies on d single-subject studies were notselected because of difficulties establishing statistical relationshipsin such research. LITERATURE SEARCH We searched for data-based studies exploring relationships betweenyoung children's reading skills and (a) their self-reportedfeelings of competency as readers or (b) adult ratings of theirachievement goal orientations. We first generated a broad list ofdescriptors based on previous theoretical (e.g., Ames, 1992; Wigfield,1997) and empirical (e.g., Valentine Valentinea true friend and constant lover. [Br. Lit.: Two Gentlemen of Verona]See : Faithfulness , DuBois, & Cooper, 2004) work:competence, competency beliefs, self-concept, self-perception,self-efficacy, motivation, engagement, goal theory, achievement goals,goal orientation, motivational orientation, task orientation, taskfocused behavior, mastery goals, ego-defensive goals, ego defensiveness,performance goals, social goals, task avoidant goals, task avoidantbehavior, and work avoidance. Second, we entered each descriptor (1) A word or phrase that identifies a document in an indexed information retrieval system.(2) A category name used to identify data. (operating system) descriptor into an electronic search ofEducation Abstracts, ERIC, Exceptional Child Educational Resources, andPsycINFO. To select relevant studies, we coupled each descriptor withthe term "reading" (e.g., "competence and reading");we set search limits to identify only those studies written in English,published after 1975 as a peer-reviewed journal peer-reviewed journalRefereed journal Academia A professional journal that only publishes articles subjected to a rigorous peer validity review process. Cf Throwaway journal. article, and involvingpreschool or school-age children. Our search yielded 1,429 citations.Third, we conducted an ancestral ANCESTRAL. What relates to or has, been done by one's ancestors; as homage ancestral, and the like. search of appropriate studiesidentified through the electronic search that met our inclusioncriteria. Fourth, we examined several books: Developing Engaged Readers inSchool and Home Communities (Baker, Afflerbach, & Reinking, 1996);Engaging Young Readers: Promoting Achievement and Motivation (Baker,Dreher, & Guthrie, 2000); Literacy and Motivation: ReadingEngagement in Individuals and Groups (Verhoeven & Snow, 2001);Reading Engagement: Motivating Readers Through Integrated Instruction(Guthrie & Winfield, 1997); and Reading Instruction That Works: TheCase for Balanced Teaching (Pressley, 2002). Fifth, we conducted a manual search of seven journals from January1975 to January 2006 (or, if the journal was relatively new, from thedate of inception to January 2006): British Journal of EducationalPsychology, Exceptional Children, Journal of Educational Psychology,Journal of Learning Disabilities, Journal of Special Education, LearningDisabilities Quarterly, and Reading Research Quarterly. We identified 15 studies that met our inclusion criteria. Sevenstudies (i.e., Aunola, Leskinen, et al., 2002; Chapman & Tunmer,1995, 1997; Chapman et al., 2000; Chapman, Tunmer; & Prochnow, 2001;Tunmer & Chap high, 2002; Wilson, Chapman, & Tunmer, 1995)examined the relationship between beginning reading skills andchildren's reading competency beliefs. Seven studies (i.e.,Gottfried, 1990; Lepola et al., 2005; Lepola, Salonen, & Vauras,2000; Nurmi & Aunola, 2005; Onatsu-Arvllommi & Nurmi, 2000;Poskiparta et al., 2003; Salonen et al., 1998) examined the associationbetween reading skills and children's goal orientations. One study(Lepola, Vaurus, & Maki, 2000) explored both competency beliefs andgoal orientations. Table 1 displays key features of these 15 studies.(Gottfried's [1990] study of intrinsic motivation is grouped withstudies evaluating children's goal orientations because intrinsicmotivation is reflected by task orientation.) RESULTS HOW STRONGLY DO READING SKILLS CORRELATE WITH READING MOTIVATION? Results from six studies (Chapman & Tunmer, 1995, 1997;Gotffried, 1990; Lepola et al., 2005; Lepola, Vauras, & Maki, 2000;Salonen et al., 1998) suggest that measures of young children'sreading skills correlate with concurrent measures of their motivation toread. Put another way, each of the reviewed studies that investigatedthis question reported a correlation between children's readingskills and their concurrent motivation. A reliable relationship emergedregardless of whether researchers relied on children'sself-reports, standardized tests, teacher ratings, or directobservations. Age and gender differences appeared to moderate thecorrelation. Competency Beliefs. Chapman and Tunmer (1997) tracked changes inthe reading skills and self-concepts of children across the first 3years of school. The correlation between reading skill level and readingself-concept increased steadily across three testing occasions, from .11to .21 to .35. Whereas the children's relative reading ability wasstable over the 3 years, their reading self-concepts were not. Readingskills assessed in the 1st year correlated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. .69 with reading skillsassessed in the 3rd year. Reading self-concept in the 1st year of schoolcorrelated only .12 with reading self-concept in the 3rd year. Childrenappeared to enter school with largely undifferentiated undifferentiated/un��dif��fer��en��ti��at��ed/ (un-dif?er-en��she-at-ed) anaplastic. un��dif��fer��en��ti��at��edadj.Having no special structure or function; primitive; embryonic. self-concepts andthen, over time, begin to report self-concepts corresponding to theirrelative reading ability. Lepola, Vauras, and Maki (2000) tracked the self-concept, behavior,school grades, and reading skills of a sample of children initiallyassessed in second grade. The correlation between reading skills andreading self-concept increased markedly between second and third grade,from .27 to .51. In second grade, the correlation between reading skillsand reading self-concept was far stronger for boys (r = .49) than forgirls (r = .12), By third grade, however, this correlation was moresimilar (r = .56 and .46). Reading serf-concept and reading gradescorrelated .24 in third grade and .41 by sixth grade. Like Chapman andTunmer (1997), Lepola, Vauras, and Maki found that children'sreading motivation increasingly covaried with their relative progress atacquiring reading skills. Chapman and Tunmer (1995) conducted four experiments on thedevelopment of children's reading self-concepts. The fourth onemeasured the relationship between children's reading skills andreading serf-concepts across their 1st and 4th or 1st and 5th year ofschool. The reading self-concept measure included subscales of perceivedcompetence, perceived difficulty, and attitudes towards reading.Children's scores on the reading measures increasingly correlatedwith their full scale reading serf-concept scores. During the 1st yearof school, the correlations ranged from .17 (letter identification andspelling) to .22 (word identification and pseudoword naming). By the 4thyear, reading skill and reading serf-concept correlated .47. The onlystatistically significant subscale correlation in first grade was"perceived difficulty." The correlations ranged from .22(letter identification) to .28 (spelling). However, statisticallysignificant correlations emerged for all three subscales by the 4thyear. Subscale correlations with reading comprehension ranged from .17(attitude towards reading) to .40 (perceived competence) to .53(perceived difficulty). By the 5th year, subscale correlations rangedfrom .40 (attitude towards reading) to .43 (perceived competence) to .65(perceived difficulty). Some children considered reading difficult bythe 1st year of formal reading instruction. This perception appeared tobroaden into more negative attitudes and lower feelings of competence inreading by the 4th and 5th years of school. Goal Orientations. Lepola, Vauras, and Maki (2000) also collecteddata on their sample's goal orientations. By the sixth grade,children's task orientation correlated .58 with their readinggrades. The association was stronger for boys (r = .72) than for girls(r = .46). Children's ego-defensiveness and social dependencycorrelated negatively with their reading grades (r = -.59 and -.54,respectively). Again, these relationships were stronger for boys (r =-.68 and -.65) than for girls (r = -.51 and -.34). Reading self-conceptand task orientation correlated .23 in third grade and .39 in sixthgrade. Children rated by their teachers as displaying more concentrationand persistence (1) In a CRT, the time a phosphor dot remains illuminated after being energized. Long-persistence phosphors reduce flicker, but generate ghost-like images that linger on screen for a fraction of a second. tended to report higher reading self-concepts. Thisrelationship was stronger for boys than for girls in both third andsixth grades (r = .36 and .09, and .48 and .25, respectively). Lepola et al. (2005) tracked the cognitive-linguistic skills andtask orientations of a sample of children as they transitioned fromkindergarten kindergarten[Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be to preschool to first grade (time periods as reported bythe investigators). The investigators used confirmatory factor analysis In statistics, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a special form of factor analysis. It is used to assess the the number of factors and the loadings of variables. to test concurrent correlations between four latent Hidden; concealed; that which does not appear upon the face of an item.For example, a latent defect in the title to a parcel of real property is one that is not discoverable by an inspection of the title made with ordinary care. factors: (a) letterknowledge, (b) phonological awareness Phonological awareness is the conscious sensitivity to the sound structure of language. It includes the ability to auditorily distinguish parts of speech, such as syllables and phonemes. , (c) rapid naming, and (d) taskorientation. In preschool, the children's task orientationcorrelated with their letter knowledge (r = .36), phonological awareness(r = .58), and rapid naming skills (r = -.24). In kindergarten, taskorientation correlated with phonological awareness (r = .20) and rapidnaming skills (r = -.47). By first grade, the children's taskorientation correlated with their phonological awareness (r = .38) andrapid naming (r = -.38). Like Chapman and Tunmer (1997), Lepola et al.found that children's reading skills were more stable than theirmotivation. The children's preschool phonological awareness skillscorrelated .78 with their first-grade skills. In contrast, theirpreschool task orientation correlated .45 with their first-grade taskorientation. Gottfried (1990) conducted a longitudinal and cross-sectional studyof the development of children's intrinsic motivation, readingachievement, and perceptions of competence. Seven-year-oldchildren's scores on the intrinsic motivation measure correlatedboth with their scores on a standardized reading measure (r = .31) andwith teacher ratings of their reading skills (r = .45). Nine-year-oldchildren's intrinsic motivation scores correlated with their scoreson a standardized reading measure (r = .21) and teacher ratings (r =.34). Collectively, results from these six studies suggest thatchildren's reading skills covary, albeit modestly, with theirreading motivation. Is THERE EVIDENCE THAT READING SKILLS PRECEDE MOTIVATION; THATMOTIVATION PRECEDES READING SKILLS; OR THAT THE TWO INFLUENCE EACHOTHER? Results from five studies (Aunola, Leskinen, et al., 2002; Chapman& Tunmer, 1997; Chapman et al., 2000; Lepola, Salonen, & Vaurus,2000; Poskiparta et al., 2003) indicate that early differences inreading skills precede later differences in reading motivation. Findingsfrom five additional studies (Chapman et al., 2000; Gottfried, 1990;Lepola et al., 2005; Onatsu-Arvilommi & Nurmi, 2000; Salonen et al.,1998) indicate the reverse relationship: early differences in motivationprecede later differences in reading skills. Findings from 10 of 11studies (the exception, Nurmi & Aunola, 2005) are consistent withthe notion of a bidirectional relationship between early reading andmotivation. Competency Beliefs. Chapman and Tunmer (1997) used path analysis toestablish whether initial differences in reading skills precede laterdifferences in reading self-concept. Results suggested that neitherreading skills nor reading self-concept in the 1st year of school had acausal affect on each other in the 2nd year of school. A significantpath coefficient between reading level in the 2nd year of school andreading self-concept in the 3rd year ([beta] = .27), along with anonsignificant non��sig��nif��i��cant?adj.1. Not significant.2. Having, producing, or being a value obtained from a statistical test that lies within the limits for being of random occurrence. path coefficient between reading self-concept in the 2ndyear and reading level in the 3rd year ([beta] = .04), suggested thatreading skills "emerged as causally caus��al?adj.1. Of, involving, or constituting a cause: a causal relationship between scarcity of goods and higher prices.2. Indicative of or expressing a cause.n. predominant pre��dom��i��nant?adj.1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant.2. over readingself-concept" (Chapman & Tunmer, 1997, p. 287). This apparentcausal relationship developed by the middle of the 2nd school year andcontinued into the first half of the 3rd school year. Aunola, Leskinen, et al. (2002) used simplex modeling, latentgrowth curve analysis, and cluster analysis Cluster analysisA statistical technique that identifies clusters of stocks whose returns are highly correlated within each cluster and relatively uncorrelated across clusters. Cluster analysis has identified groupings such as growth, cyclical, stable, and energy stocks. to model the relationshipbetween reading skills and reading self-concept. Early reading abilitywas a statistically significant predictor of later reading self-concept([beta] = .29). Multivariate latent growth curve modeling indicated thatreading and reading self-concept correlated .42 across the study'sthree measurement periods. A statistically significant correlation of.44 between reading level and trend of reading self-concept indicatedthat skilled readers developed increasingly positive readingself-concepts, while low-skilled readers developed increasingly negativereading self-concepts. Cluster analysis indicated that the readinglevels of children in two of the three groups correlated positively withtheir trends in reading self-concept. Chapman et al. (2000) evaluated whether children with negativeacademic self-concepts had begun school with weaker reading skills thanthose with typical or positive academic self-concepts. They reportedthat children later identified as having negative academic self-conceptsstarted school with consistently lower reading performance and readingself-concepts than their peers. Poor reading self-concepts became morebroadly negative over time. Discriminant dis��crim��i��nant?n.An expression used to distinguish or separate other expressions in a quantity or equation. analyses indicated thatend-of-1st-year reading performance accurately predicted positive andnegative academic self-concept with an accuracy of 75% and 70%,respectively. Findings from the Chapman et al. (2000) study suggest thatchildren who later develop negative academic self-concepts may enterschool with both lower reading skills and more negative attitudes andfeelings of competency than their peers. Goal Orientations. Lepola, Salonen, and Vaurus (2000) exploredwhether children entering school with low reading skills would laterdisplay different goal orientations than those entering with higherreading skills. Although the children did not differ on ratings of theirpreschool goal orientations, experimenters rated those with lowpreschool phonemic awareness Phonemic Awareness is a subset of phonological awareness in which listeners are able to distinguish phonemes, the smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning. For example, a listener with phonemic awareness can break the word "Cat" into three separate phonemes: /k/, /a/, as displaying lower task orientationthrough first and second grade than those with high preschool phonemicawareness. Experimenters and teachers rated the children with lowpreschool phonemic awareness as displaying higher social dependence infirst and second grade than the children with high preschool phonemicawareness. Both experimenters and teachers rated children who madelimited progress in learning to decode (1) To convert coded data back into its original form. Contrast with encode.(2) Same as decrypt. See cryptography. (cryptography) decode - To apply decryption. as less task-oriented, moreego-defensive, and more socially dependent than children who made steadyprogress. These trends held regardless of the level of phonemicawareness in preschool. Differences in task orientation between low- andhigh-skilled readers who displayed progressive growth in word readingdisappeared by second grade, suggesting that steady progress inacquiring reading skills improved task orientation. Lepola et al. (2005) used structural equation modeling Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relationships using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions. to test howchildren's letter knowledge, phonological awareness, rapid naming,and task orientation predicted each other across time, and, inparticular, how each of these predicted children's wordrecognition. These relationships were tested after controlling forinitial differences in nonverbal IQ. The structural model displayed bothdirect and indirect paths between children's reading and taskorientation. The direct paths showed that children's (a) letterknowledge in kindergarten predicted task orientation in preschool([beta] = .25), (b) phonological awareness in preschool predicted taskorientation in first grade ([beta] = .40), (c) task orientation inkindergarten predicted preschool phonological awareness ([beta] =.31),and (d) task orientation in the fall of first grade predicted wordrecognition skills ([beta] = .20) in the spring of third grade. The investigators also reported a set of indirect paths:First-grade task orientation mediated me��di��ate?v. me��di��at��ed, me��di��at��ing, me��di��atesv.tr.1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: between preschool phonologicalawareness and first-grade word recognition; preschool task orientationand phonological awareness mediated between kindergarten letterknowledge and first-grade word recognition; kindergarten taskorientation was indirectly related to first-grade word recognitionthrough preschool task orientation and phonological awareness. Theseindirect paths suggest young children's reading skills and readingmotivation begin to influence each other bidirectionally to affect laterreading ability. Results from the Lepola et al. (2005) study runcontrary to the notion that poor motivation emerges only as aconsequence of reading failure. Poskiparta et al. (2003) investigated whether children's goalorientations in preschool predict their status as poor readers, gooddecoders (i.e., children with average or above average decoding de��code?tr.v. de��cod��ed, de��cod��ing, de��codes1. To convert from code into plain text.2. To convert from a scrambled electronic signal into an interpretable one.3. andspelling skills, but below average reading comprehension skills), andgood readers in second grade. Results suggested that poor readersadopted more maladaptive goal orientations. Although poor readers, gooddecoders, and good readers behaved similarly in preschool, poor readerswere less task-oriented and more ego-defensive than good readers infirst grade. Poor readers were also more ego-defensive than gooddecoders. Both first- and second-grade teachers rated poor readers asless task-oriented, more socially dependent, and more ego-defensive thaneither good decoders or good readers. Onatsu-Arvilommi and Nurmi (2000) researched children'scognitive abilities, reading and mathematical skills, and taskorientation versus task avoidance. The children completed measures ofcognitive ability prior to beginning school. They were then assessed onthree occasions during the school year. Results from structural equationmodeling indicated that cognitive abilities positively predicted laterreading (Time 0-1, [beta] = .55) and negatively predicted later taskavoidance (Time 0-1, [beta] = -.38). Reading skills and task avoidanceinfluenced each other. Earlier task avoidance predicted poor reading(Time 1-2, [beta] = -.24; Time 2-3, [beta] = -. 19). Poor readinginconsistently predicted later task avoidance (Time 1-2, [beta] = -.18;Time 2-3, [beta] = -.07). These results held for boys and girls boys and girlsmercurialisannua. .Children's performance on a reading-specific task negativelycorrelated with their later task avoidance (Time 0-1, [beta] = -.32). Salonen et al. (1998) focused on whether differences inchildren's preschool behavior negatively affect their developmentof first-grade word reading. The investigators found that first-gradeword reading significantly correlated with preschool behavior such thatfirst-grade word reading correlated .51 with preschool task orientation,-.32 with ego defensiveness, and -.33 with social dependency. Whenentered into a hierarchical A structure made up of different levels like a company organization chart. The higher levels have control or precedence over the lower levels. Hierarchical structures are a one-to-many relationship; each item having one or more items below it. regression regression,in psychology: see defense mechanism. regressionIn statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. , first-grade reading skills werepredicted by task orientation ([beta] = .52) and phonemic awareness([beta] = .37). Together, preschool task orientation and phonemicawareness accounted for 38% of the variance in children'sfirst-grade word reading. Task-oriented children had better (a) phonemicawareness in preschool and (b) word reading in first grade thanego-defensive or multiple non-task-oriented children. As in the Lepolaet al. (2005) and Onatsu-Arvilommi and Nurmi (2000) studies, Salonen etal.'s findings suggest that subsequent development inchildren's reading ability is codetermined by both initial level ofreading skill (i.e., phonemic awareness) and task engagement. These twofactors interrelate in preschool, with task-oriented and ego-defensivechildren displaying significantly different levels of phonemicawareness. Gottfried (1990) obtained mixed results on the question of whetherearly reading level predicted children's later reading motivation.Seven-and 8-year-old children's scores on a standardized readingmeasure correlated with their intrinsic motivation to read at age 9 (r =.20 and .24, respectively). Their teacher's ratings did not (r =.14 and .09, respectively). Seven-year-old children's intrinsicmotivation scores also correlated with their scores as 8- and9-year-olds on the standardized reading measure (r = .34 and .30,respectively) and teacher ratings (r = .24 and .26, respectively).Neither standardized reading scores nor teacher ratings significantlypredicted 7- and 8-year-old children's motivation at age 9 aftercontrolling for earlier levels of motivation. Nurmi and Aunola (2005) found no evidence for a bidirectionalrelationship between reading skills and reading motivation.Children's reading level at the start of first grade predictedneither their task orientation towards reading nor their readingself-concept at the end of first grade. This pattern emerged again forthe children at the start and end of second grade. Furthermore, neitherthe children's task orientation towards reading nor their readingself-concept predicted their level of reading. This pattern held in bothfirst and second grade. However, two factors may have influenced these results. First, theinvestigators used a nontraditional "person-oriented" type ofanalysis, in which group membership (i.e., whether a child displayedhigh motivation towards school, low reading motivation, high mathmotivation, or low math motivation) acted as the predictor or criterionvariable. Second, the researchers were conservative in their analyses(e.g., a significant level of p < .01, two-tailed tests, and use ofautoregressor in their multinomial regression analyses). The Nurmi and Aunola (2005) study also found that (a) boys weremore likely than girls to be poorly motivated to read; (b) childrenreporting poor reading motivation at the beginning of first grade werelikely to still be poorly motivated at the end of second grade; and (c)children with poor reading motivation were unlikely to report a highlevel of interest in school. However, some children reporting poorreading motivation began expressing more interest in mathematics as theymoved from first to second grade. Nurmi and Aunola hypothesized thatthese children may have compensated for their low interest in reading bytrying to become interested in a school subject in which they believedthey had greater skill. HAVE THE EFFECTS OF READING SKILLS ON READING MOTIVATION AND VICEVERSA VICE VERSA. On the contrary; on opposite sides. BEEN ISOLATED FROM POTENTIALLY CONFOUNDING FACTORS? Few studies have isolated the effects of possibly confoundingvariables when estimating a reading-motivation relationship. OnlyGottfried (1990) controlled for both IQ and socioeconomic status (SES);only Lepola et al. (2005) and Onatsu-Arvilommi and Nurmi (2000)controlled for cognitive abilities at school entry. Results fromGottfried's study indicate that IQ and SES may influence thereading-motivation relationship. Instructional factors may also moderatechildren's progress in acquiring reading skills and, hence, lead todifferences in their reading motivation. Level of IQ and SES. Gottfried (1990) found that the IQs of 7- and8-year-olds correlated ,27 and .31, respectively, with their readingmotivation as 9-year-olds. Seven-year-old children's IQ correlated.32 with their self-reported motivation to read, while their motivationto read correlated .27 with their IQ at age 8. Although Gottfried foundsignificant grade differences in the longitudinal sample's totalintrinsic motivation scores, the grade differences diminished di��min��ish?v. di��min��ished, di��min��ish��ing, di��min��ish��esv.tr.1. a. To make smaller or less or to cause to appear so.b. considerably when IQ was controlled. Hierarchical multiple regressionanalysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. indicated that IQ and SES differences predicted subsequentdifferences in motivation. Eight-year-old children's IQ accountedfor 10% of the variance in their reading motivation at age 9.Seven-year-old children's SES accounted for 9% of the variance intheir reading motivation at age 9. This suggests that IQ and SES, likereading level in Lepola, Salonen, and Vaurus's (2000) study andPoskiparta et al.'s (2003) work, predict motivation. Gottfried didnot assess whether reading skill remained a significant predictor ofmotivation after controlling for IQ and SES. Lepola et al. (2005) found that IQ accounted for significantvariance in kindergarten children's letter knowledge, rapid namingskills, and task orientation. The effect for task orientation wasparticularly strong. Whereas IQ accounted for 9% of the variance inletter knowledge and 5% of the variance in rapid naming, it accountedfor 25% of the variance in task orientation. The investigators reportedthat controlling for IQ did not change the pattern of relationshipsamong children's emergent emergent/emer��gent/ (e-mer��jent)1. coming out from a cavity or other part.2. pertaining to an emergency.emergent1. coming out from a cavity or other part.2. coming on suddenly. literacy skills, task orientation, andword recognition ability. Similarly, Onatsu-Arvilommi and Nurmi (2000)found that a latent factor of cognitive competence predicted bothchildren's reading ([beta] = .55) and task avoidance ([beta] =.-38) at school entry. However, the interrelation between later readingand task avoidance remained statistically significant. Type of Classroom Instruction. Tunmer and Chapman (2002)investigated whether children who use text-based word identificationstrategies (e.g., relied on preceding content and prior knowledge toidentify a word) display lower levels of reading skill and report morenegative reading self-efficacy and academic self-concept beliefs thanthose who use word-based strategies (e.g., relied on letter-soundcorrespondence to identify a word). Tunmer and Chapman hypothesized thattext-based strategies might prove an ineffective word identificationstrategy and, if relied on often, might limit children's rate ofprogress in acquiring reading skills and promote more negative feelingstowards reading. The researchers found that children who reported usingtext-based strategies during their 1st year of reading instructionscored consistently lower on reading measures during their 1st and 3rdschool year. They also reported holding more negative self-efficacybeliefs in reading and more negative academic self-concepts by their 3rdyear than children who used word-based strategies. Type of Remediation Program. In a similar vein, Wilson et al.(1995) evaluated whether a tutoring program emphasizing text-basedstrategies (i.e., Reading Recovery) would lead to improvements in poorreaders' reading self-concept. Two groups of second graders wereevaluated. One group was 26 children selected by their teachers forparticipation in the tutoring program. They scored in the bottom 20% ona text reading task. A second group of 26 children, also identified bytheir teachers, was judged to be making very good reading progress. Thetwo groups were matched on sex, age, and classroom. Tutored childrenreceived individual instruction emphasizing use of text-based strategiesfor 12 to 20 weeks. Repeated-measures ANOVA anovasee analysis of variance.ANOVAAnalysis of variance, see there indicated poor readersreported lower reading self-concept than skilled readers, despitereceiving tutoring. Post hoc post hoc?adv. & adj.In or of the form of an argument in which one event is asserted to be the cause of a later event simply by virtue of having happened earlier: tests indicated that poor readers scoredlower on both the measure's perceived difficulty and perceivedcompetency subscales. Chapman et al. (2001), like Wilson et al. (1995), pursued whetheruse of text-based strategies negatively affect the rate of progress ofchildren's reading skill acquisition, and negatively affect theircompetency beliefs as readers. The researchers also investigated howusing text-based strategies affect the children's classroombehaviors. Children were assessed seven times over their first 3 yearsin school. Teachers identified one group as having successfullycompleted a tutoring program (i.e., Reading Recovery) that emphasizedtext-based strategies. A second group was identified as having readingskills comparable to the children who subsequently entered the tutoringprogram. A third group was identified as relatively skilled readers.Results indicated that the three groups had entered school withsignificantly different reading skills, but with similar readingself-concepts. However, by the 3rd year of reading instruction, skilledreaders reported higher reading self-concepts than the tutored group andthe non-tutored group with similar skills. There were no statisticallysignificant differences in the reading self-concepts of the two groupsof poor readers during the 3 years of the study. Results also indicatedthat tutoring in text-based strategies was largely ineffective inremediating children's phonological pho��nol��o��gy?n. pl. pho��nol��o��gies1. The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.2. processing deficits. Teachersrated the children who received tutoring as working less hard, beingless focused on learning, and displaying fewer appropriate behaviorsduring classroom instruction than the poor readers who did not receivetutoring, Chapman et al. (2001) concluded, "This finding, alongwith the self-concept results, is consistent with Stanovich's(1986) view that initial and specific difficulties in learning to readmay result in generalized gen��er��al��izedadj.1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain.2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized.3. deficits in learning" (p. 172). DISCUSSION Our review explored the relationship between children'sreading skills and reading motivation, as measured by children'sself-report and adult ratings. We asked three questions: * How strongly do children's reading skills and motivationcorrelate concurrently with each other? * Is there evidence that one precedes the other? That is; do (a)differences in children's reading skills predict later differencesin their motivation and (b) differences in children's motivationpredict subsequent differences in their levels of reading? * Have the effects of potentially confounding factors been isolatedin analyses of the reading-motivation relationship? Answers to these questions have important theoretical and practicalimplications. For example, finding that children become poorly motivatedas a result of reading failure would suggest that interventions thateffectively remediate reading skill deficits should also counteractearly declines in motivation. Conversely, if reading failure is not aprimary cause of poor motivation, then this would suggest that poormotivation may result from something other than the quality of achild's early reading instruction. As put by Lepola et al. (2005),neglecting motivation would therefore "provide a partly misleadingview of the determinants of reading acquisition" (p. 391). Findingthat young children's reading and motivation influence each otherto affect their later reading ability would suggest the need to provideinterventions that effectively counteract initially poor reading skilland low motivation. EVIDENCE OF A BIDIRECTIONAL RELATIONSHIP Results from 15 studies consistently supported the conclusion thatchildren's level of reading skill correlates with their readingmotivation. This association held whether motivation was indicated bychildren's competency beliefs (e.g., Chapman & Tunmer, 1995,1997; Lepola, Vauras, & Maki, 2000) or goal orientations (Gottfried,1990; Lepola, Salonen, & Vaurus, 2000). For example, statisticallysignificant correlations were obtained between children's readingskills and competency beliefs by the 2nd or 3rd year of school (e.g.,Chapman & Tunmer, 1997). Children's task orientation correlatedpositively (and their ego-defensiveness and social dependency correlatednegatively) with their reading grades (Lepola, Salonen, & Vaurus).Children's competency beliefs and goal orientations also covaried(Gottfried; Lepola, Vauras, & Maki). Research also suggests, however tentatively ten��ta��tive?adj.1. Not fully worked out, concluded, or agreed on; provisional: tentative plans.2. Uncertain; hesitant. , the hypothesis thatchildren's reading achievement and reading motivation predict eachother across time. Evidence of this may be found in reading self-conceptand goal orientation literatures. Chapman and Tunmer (1997) and Aunola,Leskinen, et al. (2002) reported that differences in level of readingskills predicted later reading self-concept. Lepola, Salonen, and Vaurus(2000) and Poskiparta et al. (2003) discovered that reading skillspredicted later goal orientation. The poor readers in Chapman etal.'s (2000) study entered school already holding more negativefeelings of competency and attitudes towards reading than their peers.Finally, Onatsu-Arvilommi and Nurmi (2000) and Salonen et al. (1998)reported that children's goal orientations predicted their laterreading levels. Results from three additional studies offer more direct support fora bidirectional relationship between early reading skill and motivation(i.e., Gottfried, 1990; Lepola et al., 2005; Onatsu-Arvilommi &Nurmi, 2000). Lepola et al. indicated that kindergarten children'sphonological awareness interacted over time with their task motivationto determine their first-grade word recognition skills. This study andothers (e.g., Salonen et al., 1998) show that low motivation to engagein reading activities does not result only from repeated readingfailure. However, there is not causal evidence for this bidirectionalrelationship because (a) potentially confounding factors haveinfrequently in��fre��quent?adj.1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest.2. been controlled and (b) true experiments have not yet beenconducted. For example, differences in children's reading rarelyhave been separated from effects of other factors on differences inchildren's motivation to read, whether indicated by theircompetency beliefs or goal orientations. Cohen et al. (2003) describe three methods researchers might use toisolate the effects of an independent variable: (a) removing or holdingconstant the effects of other variables, (b) randomly assigningdifferent groups to different levels of an independent variable, or (c)statistically controlling for the effects of other explanatory ex��plan��a��to��ry?adj.Serving or intended to explain: an explanatory paragraph.ex��plan variables. Rather than employ true experimental designs, investigatorshave mostly relied on causal-comparative research methods (e.g., Chapmanet al., 2000, 2001; Tunmer & Chapman, 2002). This is importantbecause (a) factors such as IQ and SES likely act as confounds in thereading skills-reading motivation relationship (e.g., Gottfried, 1990)and (b) it is difficult to determine causality causality,in philosophy, the relationship between cause and effect. A distinction is often made between a cause that produces something new (e.g., a moth from a caterpillar) and one that produces a change in an existing substance (e.g. from causal-comparativemethods (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). Still, results from the fewstudies that have statistically controlled for Potential confoundingfactors are consistent with the notion of an early bidirectional readingskills-reading motivation relationship (Gottfried; Lepola et al., 2005;Onatsu-Arvilommi & Nurmi, 2000). Although children's reading skills and motivation consistentlycorrelated, the reported magnitude of the correlations variedsubstantially. Concurrent correlations ranged from a low of. 11 to ahigh of .65, or 1% to 42% of explained variance Explained variance is part of the variance of any residual that can be attributed to a specific condition (cause). The other part of variance is unexplained variance. The higher the explained variance relative to the total variance, the stronger the statistical measure used. . Because this range incorrelations may reflect a developmental dynamic, we would cautionagainst interpreting the smaller correlations as clinicallyinsignificant. The interaction between poor reading and low motivationmay "snowball," or increasingly influence each other in such away as to lead to long-term reading failure. If so, identifying theonset of this negative feedback cycle may be critical to prevent suchfailure. As argued by Spear-Swerling and Sternberg (1994), "Oncechildren have entered the 'swamp' of negative expectations,lowered motivation, and limited practice, it becomes increasinglydifficult for them to get back on the road of proficient pro��fi��cient?adj.Having or marked by an advanced degree of competence, as in an art, vocation, profession, or branch of learning.n.An expert; an adept. reading"(p. 101). METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES Although we focused on two relatively well-established indicatorsof reading motivation (i.e., reading self-concept and goalorientations), several methodological and theoretical considerationscomplicated our interpretation of the evidence. First, differentresearchers used different measures of motivation. Chapman and Tunmer(1997) and Wilson et al. (1995) used a 30-item instrument comprised ofthree subscales, whereas Aunola, Leskinen, et al. (2002) and Lepola,Vauras, & Maki (2000) relied on a simple sociogram. Whether thesetwo measures gauge the same construct--reading self-concept--remains anopen question. Few researchers explored motivation with multiplemeasures, despite a persuasive rationale for doing so (e.g., Gersten,Baker, & Lloyd, 2000). It is also difficult to determine if current measures of motivationare assessing children's interest in reading per se and not theirinterest in classroom reading activities. This is an importantdistinction because the interaction between reading and motivation wouldhave its greatest impact on children's reading growth if it ledthem to avoid all types of reading activities. We were also unable todetermine how well children's classroom materials were matched totheir relative reading levels. Ignoring this might lead to a possiblymistaken conclusion that a child is uninterested in reading per serather than simply disinclined dis��in��clined?adj.Unwilling or reluctant: They were usually disinclined to socialize.disinclinedAdjectiveunwilling or reluctant to work on those particular readingactivities that are proving too difficult. Second, not all researchers established the validity of theirmotivation measures. Only Gottfried directly tested whether childrenmight be influenced by social desirability when self-reporting on theirreading motivation. Although many investigators (e.g., Chapman &Tunmer, 1995; Gottfried, 1990; Lepola et al., 2005) reported relativelystrong reliability coefficients, some described weak ones (e.g., Aunola,Leskinen, et al., 2002; Salonen et al., 1998). Reliable measures areespecially important in longitudinal studies longitudinal studies,n.pl the epidemiologic studies that record data from a respresentative sample at repeated intervals over an extended span of time rather than at a single or limited number over a short period. . A third problem concerns the design of the studies. Fourteen werelongitudinal; one (i.e., Wilson et al., 1995) was quasi-experimental.Random selection and assignment have yet to be used in evaluating thereading-motivation relationship. This limitation, combined with the factthat so few studies used statistical means to control for the influenceof possible confounding variables, weakens any causal conclusions thatcan be drawn (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Fourth, across the 15 studies, participants were fairly homogenous homogenous - homogeneous ,which limits generalizability. Eight of the 15 studies (Aunola,Leskinen, et al., 2002; Lepola, Salonen, & Vaurus, 2000, Lepola etal., 2005; Lepola, Vauras, & Maki, 2000; Nurmi & Aunola, 2005;Onatsu-Arvilommi & Nurmi, 2000; Poskiparta et al., 2003; Salonen etal., 1998) sampled children learning to read Finnish. The regularorthography of Finnish may affect conclusions about the nature andstrength of the reading-motivation relationship for children learning toread a language with a more irregular HEIR, IRREGULAR. In Louisiana, irregular heirs are those who are neither testamentary nor legal, and who have been established by law to take the succession. See Civ. Code of Lo. art. 874. orthography (e.g., English). Onlyone of the 15 investigations (i.e., Gottfried, 1990) involved Americanchildren. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND PRACTICE Studies that use (a) multiple measures of the same indicator (e.g.,reading self-concept), (b) multiple measures of related but distinctconstructs (e.g., math self-concept), and (c) exploratory factoranalysis to assess whether the particular measures conform withdefinitions of the indicator they seek to tap (Gersten et al., 20001Pedhazer & Schmelkin, 1991) would strengthen research on readingmotivation. Future researchers might also try to build uponGottfried's (1990) commendable com��mend?tr.v. com��mend��ed, com��mend��ing, com��mends1. To represent as worthy, qualified, or desirable; recommend.2. To express approval of; praise. See Synonyms at praise.3. attempts to establish the validityof her measure of children's intrinsic motivation. In light of findings reported by Chapman et al. (2001), Tunmer andChapman (2002), and Wilson et al. (1995), one promising way to explore apossible causal reading skills-reading motivation relationship would beto randomly assign poor readers to a program emphasizing strategies forword-level decoding. Establishing that those children whose decodingimproves also make greater gains in reading motivation would helpprovide a case for the causal nature of the relationship. Which reading deficits most strongly affect young children'smotivation? Poor phonological awareness and decoding are two skillsidentified by Stanovich (1986) and our review and, as such, may beimportant to target for intervention. Researchers might also attempt tocontrol for potentially confounding factors and involve moreheterogeneous Not the same. Contrast with homogeneous. heterogeneous - Composed of unrelated parts, different in kind.Often used in the context of distributed systems that may be running different operating systems or network protocols (a heterogeneous network). populations to improve generalizability of findings. For practitioners, this review suggests the importance of makingsure that children's motivation remains high; low motivation, likepoor phonological awareness or letter knowledge, may act as an importantdeterminant determinant,a polynomial expression that is inherent in the entries of a square matrix. The size n of the square matrix, as determined from the number of entries in any row or column, is called the order of the determinant. of later reading skills (Lepola et al., 2005). For example,Morgan, Farkas, Tufis, and Sperling (2006) found that first-gradechildren displaying low-level task orientation were three times aslikely to be poor readers in third grade as first-grade peers displayingtypical levels of task orientation. This was after statisticallycontrolling for (a) poor reading ability in first grade and (b) manydemographic-and SES-related characteristics. Interventions focusing onbolstering a child's reading skills, although necessary, mayultimately prove insufficient in helping him or her become a proficientreader unless they also help strengthen poor motivation. What, then, can practitioners do to bolster This article is about the pillow called a bolster. For other meanings of the word "bolster", see bolster (disambiguation). A bolster (etymology: Middle English, derived from Old English, and before that the Germanic word bulgstraz a child's poorreading motivation? It may be necessary to combine scientifically-basedreading interventions with motivation-building techniques. Quirk andSchwanenflugel (2004) recently detailed many of these. For example, theresearchers advise practitioners to help children self-set reading goalsthat are challenging but reachable. A teacher might spend a few minuteseach week helping a child monitor his or her progress in meeting thesegoals. Accomplishing these goals may bolster the child's beliefthat, with effort, he or she can become a better reader. Of course, itis critical to combine such motivation-building techniques withinterventions that help the child meet his or goals to become a betterreader. We suggest there is preliminary support for the hypothesis thatchildren's early reading difficulties and low motivation interactto undermine their continued reading growth (e.g., Stanovich, 1986).Whereas results from 15 studies indicate that children's readingskills and reading motivation correlate--and that this relationship maybe bidirectional across time--few of the 15 studies have eliminatedplausible rival explanations of a possible causal relationship. Thus, itmay be that children with specific reading deficits enter school withmotivational deficits. If future research supports a bidirectionalrelationship between reading skills and reading motivation thenresearchers, practitioners, and parents may need to cultivate cul��ti��vate?tr.v. cul��ti��vat��ed, cul��ti��vat��ing, cul��ti��vates1. a. To improve and prepare (land), as by plowing or fertilizing, for raising crops; till.b. both"skill" and "will" if they are to help poor readersdevelop proficiency pro��fi��cien��cy?n. pl. pro��fi��cien��ciesThe state or quality of being proficient; competence.Noun 1. proficiency - the quality of having great facility and competence . Manuscript received July 2005; accepted April 2006. REFERENCES References marked with an asterisk (1) See Asterisk PBX.(2) In programming, the asterisk or "star" symbol (*) means multiplication. For example, 10 * 7 means 10 multiplied by 7. The * is also a key on computer keypads for entering expressions using multiplication. indicate the studies in ourreview. Allen, J., Shockley, B., & Baumann, J. (1995). 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External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a motivation, amount of reading, andpast reading achievement on text comprehension between U.S. and Chinesestudents. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, 162-184. Watkins, M. W., & Coffey, D. Y. (2004). Reading motivation:Multidimensional and indeterminate That which is uncertain or not particularly designated. INDETERMINATE. That which is uncertain or not particularly designated; as, if I sell you one hundred bushels of wheat, without stating what wheat. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 950. . Journal of Educational Psychology,96, 110-118. Wigfield, A. (1997). Reading motivation: A domain-specific approachto motivation. Educational Psychologist, 32, 59-68. Wigfield, A. (2000). Facilitating young children's motivationto read. In L. Baker, M. J. Dreher, & J. T. Guthrie (Eds.), Engagingyoung readers (pp. 140-158). New York: Guilford. Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Yoon, K. S., Harold, R. D., Arbreton,A. J. A., Freedman-Doan, C., et al. (1997). Change in children'scompetence beliefs and subjective task values across the elementaryschool years: A 3-year study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89,451-469. Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (1997). Relations ofchildren's motivation for reading to the amount and breadth oftheir reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 420-432. * Wilson, M. G., Chapman, J. W., & Tunmer, W. E. (1995). Earlyreading difficulties and reading self-concept. Journal of CognitiveEducation, 4, 33-45. PAUL L. MORGAN The Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University,main campus at University Park, State College; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855, opened 1859 as Farmers' High School. DOUGLAS FUCHS Peabody College Peabody College was founded in 1875 when the University of Nashville, located in Nashville,Tennessee, split into two separate educational institutions. The preparatory school, Montgomery Bell Academy separated from the college, which was originally called of Vanderbilt University Vanderbilt University,at Nashville, Tenn.; coeducational; chartered 1872 as Central Univ. of Methodist Episcopal Church, founded and renamed 1873, opened 1875 through a gift from Cornelius Vanderbilt. Until 1914 it operated under the auspices of the Methodist Church. PAUL L. MORGAN (CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. PA Federation), Assistant Professor, Departmentof Educational Psychology, School Psychology, and Special Education, ThePennsylvania State University, University Park. DOUGLAS FUCHS (CEC TNFederation), Professor, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University,Nashville, Tennessee “Nashville” redirects here. For other uses, see Nashville (disambiguation).Nashville is the capital and the second most populous city of the U.S. state of Tennessee, after Memphis. . Address correspondence to Paul L. Morgan, Department of EducationalPsychology, School Psychology, and Special Education, 211 CEDARBuilding, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802(e-mail: paulmorgan@ psu.edu).TABLE 1Demographics, Design, and Reliability ofMeasurements of Reviewed StudiesStudy Sample StudyAuthors Characteristics DesignAunola, N= 105; 6 to LongitudinalLeskinen, 7 years; Finnishet al., 2002Chapman & N= 771; 5 to LongitudinalTunmer, 10 years; New1995 (a) ZealandersChapman & N= 118; 5 to LongitudinalTunmer, 1997 7 years; New ZealandersChapman et N= 60; 5 years; Longitudinalal., 2000 New ZealandersChapman et N= 132; 5 years; Longitudinalal., 2001 New ZealandersGottfried, N= 107; 7 to Longitudinal1990 9 years; American & Cross- (longitudinal) sectional N= 98; grades 1-3; American (cross-sectional)Lepola et N= 100; preschool- Longitudinalal., 2005 1st grade; FinnishLepola, N= 48; 6 to LongitudinalSalonen, 8 years; Finnishet al., 2000Lepola, N= 101; 8, LongitudinalVaurus, 9, & 12 years;& Maki, Finnish2000Nurmi & N= 211; 6 to LongitudinalAunola, 7 years;2005 FinnishOnatsu- N= 105; 6 to LongitudinalArvilommi 7 years;& Nurmi, Finnish2000Poskiparta N= 127; Longitudinalet al., preschool-2003 grade 2; FinnishSalonen, N = 32; LongitudinalLepola, 6 years;& Niemi, Finnish1998Tunmer & N= 121; 5 to LongitudinalChapman, 7 years; New2002 ZealandersWilson et N= 52; Quasi-al., 1995 6 years; New experimental ZealandersStudy Reliability EstimatesAuthors of Motivation MeasuresAunola, Self-Concept of Reading Ability (test-retestLeskinen, reliabilities = .29 for Time 1 to 2, .55 foret al., 2002 Time 2 to 3)Chapman & Reading Self-Concept Scale-30 (a range =Tunmer, .81-.89, full scale total sample estimate = .84)1995 (a)Chapman & Reading Self-Concept Scale (a for ageTunmer, 1997 5 = .85; age 6 = .84; age 7=.85)Chapman et Perception of Ability Scale for Students;al., 2000 Reading-Self Concept Scale; no reliability information reportedChapman et Reading Self-Concept Scale (internalal., 2001 reliability = .85); Perception of Ability Scale for Students (internal reliability = .93); Adaptive Behavior Scale (internal reliability = .92) and Maladaptive Behavior Scale (internal reliability = .90) of the Child Behavior ChecklistGottfried, Young Children's Academic Intrinsic1990 Motivation Inventory (longitudinal & cross-sectional studies combined a = .82; test-retest reliability for the cross-sectional study = .73); Children's Academic Anxiety Inventory (ages 7 & 8 for both studies combined [alpha] = .67); Self Perception of Competence ([alpha] = .58 based on both studies & reading, math, & general scores)Lepola et Task orientation in kindergarten,al., 2005 preschool, and first grade ([alpha] = .83, .81, .85, respectively).Lepola, Preschool: task, social dependence, & ego-defensiveSalonen, orientation ([alpha] = .69, .71, & .71,et al., 2000 respectively); coping (inter-rater reliability [alpha] = .70). First grade: task, social dependence orientation, & ego-defensive ([alpha] = .78, .71, & .82, respectively). Second grade: task, social dependence orientation, & ego-defensive ([alpha] = .70, .77, & .81, respectively).Lepola, Self-concept of attainment (no reliability informationVaurus, reported); task orientation (third grade& Maki, [alpha] = .70; sixth grade [alpha] = .87),2000 social dependence orientation (third grade [alpha] = .74; 6th grade [alpha] = .76), & ego-defensive (third grade [alpha] = .83; 6th grade [alpha] = .76),Nurmi & Task-Value Scale for Children ([alpha] = .72,Aunola, .83-82, & .81 for reading-related task motivation);2005 Self-Concept of Ability (test-retest reliability Time 1 to 2 = .50; Time 2 to 3 = .46; Time 3 to 4, = .57 for self-concept of reading ability)Onatsu- Teacher Ratings of Task-Irrelevant BehaviorsArvilommi ([alpha] = .94 at each of 3 waves), test-retest& Nurmi, reliability (Time 1 to 2 = .94; Time 2 to 3 = .94):2000 Helplessness Behaviors (a = .89, .92 & .91 at each of 3 waves), test-retest reliability (Time 1 to 2 = .92, Time 2 to 3 = .91); Lack of Persistence ([alpha] = .91, .92, & .94 at each of 3 waves), test-retest reliability (Time 1 to 2 = .92, Time 2 to 3 = .94)Poskiparta Task orientation, social dependenceet al., orientation, ego-defensive orientation ([alpha]2003 = .69, .71 & .71, respectively)Salonen, Task, social dependence, & ego-defensiveLepola, orientations (rs between preschool teachers'& Niemi, & two experimenters' ratings = .20 & .55, .471998 & .65, & .08 & .49, respectively)Tunmer & Reading self-efficacy (internal reliabilityChapman, = .72); Perception of Ability Scale for Students2002 (internal reliability = .93)Wilson et Reading Self-Concept Scale, No reliabilityal., 1995 information reportedNote. [alpha] = Cronbach's alpha. Reliabilityinformation is based on the cited study's sample.(a) Experiment 4 only.