A weapon of choice--experiments with a replica Irish Early Bronze Age halberd.

A weapon of choice--experiments with a replica Irish Early Bronze Age halberd. Introduction The halberd halberdWeapon consisting of an ax blade and a sharp spike mounted on the end of a long staff. Usually about 5–6 ft (1.5–2 m) long, it was an important weapon in middle Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. , so often presented as mysterious and enigmatic, is infact a reasonably common artefact See artifact. of the Early Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the in Europe.Just over 600 examples are known, with significant concentrations inIreland, Central Europe Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. In addition, Northern, Southern and Southeastern Europe may variously delimit or overlap into Central Europe. and Iberia, and with the majority dating to theperiod between 2300 BC and 1900 BC (O'Flaherty 2002; Schumacher2002; Brandherm 2003; 2004). Archaeologists have tended to regard halberds as non-utilitarian,in the case of the Irish examples pointing to a perceived weakness inthe hafting Hafting is a process by which an artifact, often bone, metal, or stone, is attached to a handle or strap. This makes the artifact more useful by allowing it to be fired (as in the case of an arrowhead), thrown (as a spear), or leveraged more effectively (as an axe or adze). technique, as well as a presumed clumsiness in the hand (ORiordain 1937: 241; Macalister 1949: 132-34; Herity & Eogan 1977:137; O'Kelly 1989: 164-65; Mallory & McNeill 1991: 102; Wadddl1991: 70; 1998: 129-31). In order to test this assumption, it wasdecided to design and construct a replica halberd and test itseffectiveness in a practical trial. This paper is divided in two parts. The first part describes theresults of the trials, while in the second part the nature of combat inthe Early Bronze Age and the role of the halberd are reconsidered. Making and using a replica halberd A full account of the design and construction of the replica ispublished elsewhere (O'Flaherty et al. 2002). However, for thepurposes of this paper, suffice it to say that the blade is a Cottontype (Harbison 1969: 41-5), which is the most common Irish type. It isnot a direct copy of any particular blade, but instead its dimensionshave been created from a careful analysis, in the hand, of some 69Cotton type halberds, or about 74 per cent of the total knownpopulation. It is cast from arsenical ar��sen��i��caln.An agent containing arsenic.adj.Of, relating to, or containing arsenic.arsenical1. pertaining to arsenic.2. a compound containing arsenic. copper, the usual metal of theIrish halberds. The shaft is of oak, as was that found with the halberdfrom Carn, Co. Mayo, the only hafted example to survive intact (Raftery1942). One other halberd, from Almamacken, Co. Armagh was hafted whenfound, but the shaft disintegrated on recovery (Flanagan 1966). The proportions of the haft-head are based on careful measurementsof rivets surviving in situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. on Irish halberds, while the dimensions ofthe shaft are based on assumptions drawn from a combination of sources,including the Carn halberd, rock-art depictions and the metal-shaftedhalberds of Central Europe. Again, for more details see O'Flahertyet al. 2002. The dimensions of the finished replica (Figure 1) are as follows: * Shaft length: 1220mm * Shaft thickness: 24mm * Shaft width: 33mm * Shaft head: 14mm top, narrowing to 6mm at back. * Length of blade: 250mm * Thickness of blade: 9mm * Rivet lengths: uppermost--20mm, central--22mm, lowermost--22mm * Rivet head diameters: 11.5-12mm * Total weight: 1.5kg [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] There is evidence that some Bronze Age halberds from Ireland, atleast, received post-casting treatment in the form of annealing,cold-hammering and sharpening (Allen et al. 1970: 106-14). However, toavoid argument about the appropriate level of post-casting treatment andits implications for the performance of the blade during trials, no suchtreatment was applied to the replica blade. Furthermore (though in thiscase unintentionally) the replica blade has an arsenic content of just0.2 per cent, resulting in a softer metal than that used in theprehistoric blades. In the circumstances, we can only conclude thathowever well the replica performed under trial, an actual Bronze Agehalberd would have performed better. Practical trial For a variety of reasons, which are discussed later, the Irishhalberd seems best designed for impact on bone rather than muscle. To befatal, the target would most likely be the skull, although other areasof the body (notably the rib-cage) would also be likely candidates.Brandherm (2003) suggests that the throat may also have been a target.In the event, it was decided to test the effectiveness of the halberdagainst the mass of bone in the skull using sheep-heads, which providethe nearest readily available equivalent to a human skull In humans, the adult skull is normally made up of 22 bones. Except for the mandible, all of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures, synarthrodial (immovable) joints formed by bony ossification, with Sharpey's fibres permitting some flexibility. (Figure 2). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] The trials took place at an abattoir in Co. Wexford, with theco-operation of local management. The heads were obtained directly fromthe killing line. They were unskinned and still warm and came from amixture of yearlings and older ewes. The possibility of fixing the headsto some form of structure for the trials, or placing them upon a raisedsurface had previously been considered, but the risk of damage to thehalberd if a blow missed its target seemed too great. A sudden impactagainst a wood, metal or even a plastic surface might easily havedamaged the halberd irreparably, putting an end to the trialsimmediately. Even if it did not end the trial, the damage suffered bythe halberd would certainly have distorted the test results. Havingconsidered a number of options in advance, it was decided to simply takethe heads outdoors and place them one by one on grass, in order tominimise any potential damage to the halberd arising from a misdirectedblow. As it happened, no such accident occurred and all damage to thehalberd results entirely from impact with the heads. Images in rock-art clearly show halberds being raised high abovethe head, presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. delivering the blow completely within the verticalplane (Figure 3). This makes complete sense once one has handled a fullyhafted halberd. The halberd is very comfortable and balanced in thehand, but it has a tendency to swivel if not held securely, this being afunction of fixing a long heavy blade at right-angles to the shaft.Certainly, the replica halberd appears best suited to short punchingblows along the vertical plane, rather than wide, scything attacks whichcould jar the blade in its socket and possibly split the haft. This issupported by analysis of wear-patterns on Irish halberds, which suggeststhat the most vulnerable point is at the back of the hafting plate(O'Flaherty 2002: 149, 156). The rivet in this area tends to be theone most often missing and the rivet-hole here tends to show thegreatest damage, while the back of the hafting plate itself may bedented or broken. All this is consistent with delivery of heavy, direct,punching blows with the impact directed along the length of the bladeand ultimately absorbed where the back of the hafting plate meets thewood of the shaft. Taking all this into account, it was decided to beginwith a short chopping motion, which could be reproduced again and againwith reasonable accuracy and consistency. If this failed to pierce theskull, a longer swinging blow would be adopted. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The heads were placed one by one on the grass and struck with thehalberd. A point in the centre of the forehead, between the eyes wasselected and all blows were delivered to this point. A few tentativeblows were tried initially, to gauge the strength of delivery requiredand length of lead-swing. These initial blows suggested that the halberdwould not survive long, as both shaft and blade could be felt to flex onimpact. However, this was very quickly revealed to be a result of lackof confidence in the delivery. Once this was corrected the halberdproved itself to be extremely effective and highly resilient. A shortchopping blow (Figures 4 and 5), raising the weapon no more than acouple of feet from the head and delivered with confidence rather thanbrute force (programming) brute force - A primitive programming style in which the programmer relies on the computer's processing power instead of using his own intelligence to simplify the problem, often ignoring problems of scale and applying naive methods suited to small problems directly was sufficient to pierce the skull, often very deeply indeed(Figures 6 and 7). About half the time, the blade penetrated the skullon the first blow; the rest of the time, it took two or three blows. [FIGURES 4-7 OMITTED] The blade was examined after 10 heads had been disposed of and wasfound to be completely undamaged: the blade showed no sign of buckling(despite the inexpert use which had resulted in a few ricochetingblows), and it remained firmly fixed in its haft. A number of striationswas noted towards the end of the blade, running in parallel to the lineof the blade, evidently resulting from passage of the blade throughbone. The trial was resumed and another 10 heads were struck and piercedsuccessively. The blade was then examined again and once more foundunharmed. There was no buckling of the blade, apart from a very slight,almost indistinct in��dis��tinct?adj.1. Not clearly or sharply delineated: an indistinct pattern; indistinct shapes in the gloom.2. Faint; dim: indistinct stars.3. 'ripple' to the edge. In addition, there hadbeen some slight expansion of metal at the point, presumably resultingfrom impact with the skull--a feature noted previously on some halberdblades in museum collections. The blade, however, remained secure in thehaft; there appeared to be no loosening of the rivets whatsoever and thehaft head was also quite undamaged. At this point in time, havingdisposed of 20 sheep-heads, and there being every appearance that thehalberd might continue in effective use indefinitely, the trial wasconcluded. Conclusions from trials As noted already, halberds have traditionally been regarded asnon-functional, ceremonial artefacts. In particular, the mode of haltingand the slightness of the haft head have been cited as reasons why thisartefact could not have been put to any practical use. However, despitethe deficiencies of the replica noted already as compared with theprehistoric originals, it nonetheless revealed itself to be a remarkablyeffective weapon. The halberd consistently delivered a clean, narrowpuncture wound puncture woundn.A wound that is deeper than it is wide, produced by a narrow pointed object. , up to 5 or 6cm long (Figure 7) depending on the depth towhich the blade penetrated. The small rounded end of the blade ensuresthat the full force of the blow is administered to a tiny area of theskull first, virtually guaranteeing a puncture each time. The fact thatthe end of the blade is rounded rather than brought to a sharp pointadds strength to this area, which otherwise might bend or Bend Or (1877-1903) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 1880 edition of the Epsom Derby. His regular jockey Fred Archer, winner of thirteen consecutive British jockey titles, said Bend Or was probably the greatest horse he had ever ridden. even snap onfirst impact. It also suggests that the blade is designed for impact onbone rather than muscle, where a sharp pointed weapon would seem moreappropriate than a blunt-nosed one. The results of these trials strongly suggest that the Irish halberdis very carefully designed to perform as an effective weapon. That isnot to say that all Irish halberds were used in this way, but theycertainly could have been and it certainly explains aspects of theirdesign. In addition, the replica halberd survives in a condition that Iwould categorise as 'perfect' in a museum example, suggestingthat even these apparently unused halberds could have seen some action. Combat possibilities These practical trials vividly attest to the effectiveness of theIrish Early Bronze Age halberd as a weapon. In fact, contrary to whatTreherne (1995: 109) asserts, it is arguably the halberd, if anything,and not the sword which is 'the first object dearly designed forcombat instead of simply being adapted from an existing tool form'.Taking account of the extensive distribution of the halberd in Ireland(where it outnumbers contemporary daggers), and its wider distributionthroughout Europe which is amplified by its depictions in the rock artof the period, it is entirely reasonable to argue that the halberd wasthe weapon par excellence of the Early Bronze Age. As regards the nature of combat during the Early Bronze Age, thismust be considered in the context of the wider debate about the role andnature of war and violence in human society. This debate has oftencentred on whether warfare can be explained in functional terms, whetherit is adaptive, and why some societies undertake it frequently whileothers do not (Fried et al. 1967; Keegan 1994). Over the last ten years or so, there has been a considerableincrease in the volume of archaeological literature dealing with warfarein prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to (e.g. Edmonds & Thomas 1987; Sharples 1991; Drews1993; Louwe Kooijmans 1993; Treherne 1995; Carman Car´mann. 1. A man whose employment is to drive, or to convey goods in, a car or car. 1997; Osgood 1998;Carman & Harding 1999; Osgood & Monks 2000; Guilaine &Zammit 2001; Kristiansen 2002). Much of this has reflected on laterprehistory, or on aspects of combat in the classical world, and so isnot directly relevant to the period or society under consideration here.However, it is widely accepted now amongst archaeologists thatsmallscale raiding and feuding was a common feature of Early Bronze Agesociety. From an anthropological perspective, there are a great manyaccounts and references which might be considered for the purposes of aconsideration of the pursuit of combat and war amongst pre-statesocieties (e.g. Chagnon 1967; Vayda 1976; Ferguson & Whitehead1992). Space, however, does not allow for a detailed consideration ofthese here. Nonetheless, the following description from Divale (1973:21) of warfare amongst the mountain peoples of New Guinea New Guinea(gĭn`ē), island, c.342,000 sq mi (885,780 sq km), SW Pacific, N of Australia; the world's second largest island after Greenland. may help usvisualise how some of these encounters developed: 'Each army wascomposed of warriors, usually related by marriage, from several alliedvillages. Even though large numbers of warriors were involved, there waslittle or no military effort; instead, dozens of individual duels wereengaged in. Each warrior shouted insults at his opponent and hurledspears or fired arrows. Agility in dodging arrows was highly praised ...In spite of the huge array of warriors involved in these pitchedbattles, little killing took place.... In the event that someone wasbadly wounded or slain, the battle would usually cease for thatday'. Many of the most important points to be gleaned from the variousanthropological accounts are summed up in this quotation, for examplethe individual duels, the posturing, the long-range nature of theconflict, with use of projectiles dominating the proceedings, and theresulting low level of casualties. Undoubtedly, there must have beenoccasions when matters were brought to a closer range and it is in thoseclashes that we might envisage the halberds being brought into play. The contemporary depictions from continental Europe (both rock-artand stelae-statuary) show warriors wielding long-handled halberds raisedhigh over the head in combat(?) with other similarly armed warriors(Figure 3). In other examples (Figure 8), warriors are depicted armedwith both halberd and sword raising the interesting possibility that inthese cases, which illustrate short-handled halberds, they might havebeen used with swords as specific type of combat panoply pan��o��ply?n. pl. pan��o��plies1. A splendid or striking array: a panoply of colorful flags.See Synonyms at display.2. . Such use isunlikely to have been made of the Irish halberds, however, unless inconjunction with a dagger but does reinforce the view that elsewhere inEurope the halberd had a clear combat role. [FIGURE 8 OMITTED] Comparison with the 'historical' halberd, the pole-armwhich was used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages, shows howthe Bronze Age Irish halberd might have been used. Only one treatisesurviving from the period is devoted exclusively to the technique ofhalberd combat. This is Le Jeu de la Hache Le jeu de la hache ("play of the axe") is a French manual on combat with the poleaxe dating to ca. 1400. The manuscript measures 240mm by 160mm and consists of ten vellum leaves. The text consists of a prologue (fols. , written down sometime in thefifteenth century and published for the first time by Sydney Anglo in1991. This text is particularly valuable because it describes in greatdetail how pole-arms of this sort might be used in single combat, ratherthan as the weapon of massed infantry. This may shed some light on howthe Early Bronze Age halberd, regarded by so many commentators as clumsyand ineffective, could have been used very effectively in the hands of askilled warrior. Anglo (1991) makes the important point that in fightinghand-to-hand with pole-arms, the technique adopted was much like thatused in quarter-staff play. 'Long handled swinging strokes'.he comments, 'were easily countered and were not greatly admired...' (p. 115). In fact, the author of the Jeu specificallyrecommends that combatants should lead with the queue or shaft of theweapon and a striking feature of the whole treatise is the extent towhich this part of the weapon is relied upon for both attack anddefence. Anglo points out that the queue is mentioned more than threetimes as often in this text as the dague (the spur protruding from theback of the axe-head), while the axe-blade itself appears to have beenrarely used. This observation is of immense interest as it reminds usthat what has survived from the Early Bronze Age is only part of thewhole weapon: we are missing the shaft (rarely considered as more than aprop for the blade) which may have been the most important part of thewhole weapon, particularly for those types with reasonably long shafts. The experience of sword-play in medieval Europe also helps usenvisage how the Early Bronze Age halberd may have been used. The pointis made by Oakeshott (1960: 158-59) that swordsmen would do everythingpossible to protect their blades from unnecessary impact with anopponent's weapon, because of the damage which would result. Weshould not be surprised if in the Early Bronze Age, combatants were totake even more care of their expensive metal blades and only strike withthat portion of the weapon when they were reasonably confident ofhitting the target. It seems, therefore, that we need to think of the halberd as beingused judiciously, not in wild, swinging strokes that could be easilyavoided and which were risky to both blade and user. In particular wemight imagine considerable use of the shaft as a precursor to creatingthe opportunity for a killing-blow. Pole-work like this would alsoprovide an opportunity to display skill and expertise in the handling ofthe weapon, without endangering the copper head, and indeed if theethnographic examples are anything to go by, this type of encounter mayhave been sufficient of itself to conclude some conflicts. ContemporaryBronze Age depictions often show halberds with large bulbous bulbous/bul��bous/ (bul��bus)1. bulbar.2. shaped like, bearing, or arising from a bulb.bulboushaving the form or nature of a bulb; bearing or arising from a bulb. ends to theshaft (Figure 9), and if these are in fact accurate depictions they alsohint at substantial use of the shaft to deal blows or perhaps trip ordisarm the opponent. If a kill was required, it seems likely that theprimary target would be the head of one's opponent--aimingelsewhere runs the risk of trapping the halberd without hope of recoveryand without inflicting a fatal wound. Further, as pointed out earlier,the fact that the Irish halberds are blunt-nosed rather than pointedseems to indicate intention to impact on bone rather than muscle. Thepractical trials have shown that a blow to the head, correctlydelivered, is virtually guaranteed to penetrate the skull deeply andkill. [FIGURE 9 OMITTED] To no small extent, the halberd demonstrates many of thecharacteristics of a 'champion's weapon', requiringconsiderable skill to use effectively. It is certainly not the type ofweapon to take along on a raid, where the objective is generally to getin and out as quickly as possible. The halberd is not constructed foraction in a melee, where bow-and-arrow serve better from a distance, anddaggers, clubs and axes are more effective should things come to closequarters close quartersNoun, plat close quartersa. engaged in hand-to-hand combatb. very near togetherNoun 1. . The halberd requires too much attention, demanding the use ofboth hands and a cool head to avoid unexpected damage, as well of courseas sufficient room to manoeuvre. In a 'ritualised' setting,however, against another opponent similarly armed, the halberd would beeffective and impressive from the point of view of the onlooker, aperfect vehicle to display the prowess (and wealth) of a champion.Treherne (1995: 111) has argued convincingly that, 'by the MiddleBronze Age, the prevailing "ideology" was largely centred onthe male (gendered) individual and the display of his personalaccoutrements ac��cou��ter��mentor ac��cou��tre��ment ?n.1. An accessory item of equipment or dress. Often used in the plural.2. Military equipment other than uniforms and weapons. Often used in the plural.3. acquired through inter-regional exchange and emulation,with novel themes of drinking, driving/riding, body-decorating andfighting'. But need we wait until the Middle Bronze Age to identify thesetraits? In the Early Bronze Age and in the form of the warrior equippedwith halberd, we have the very model of such a champion and such asociety. The burial evidence for the period in Ireland leads us tosuspect a male-dominated society (Mount 1991) and with its roots firmlyin broader Beaker traditions, we can detect also those other traitsidentified by Treherne: the consumption of alcohol, the introduction ofthe horse and a more martial aspect than heretofore. And in the halberd,we have the very model of a champion's weapon, beautiful, costlyand requiring skill and courage to wield, perfect for display. Conclusion: the roles of the halberd--and its demise We should remember, drawing once more upon the anthropologicalevidence (and in particular the experience of the Maring of NewGuinea--see Vayda 1976) that serious conflict may only have occurred atintervals coming or happening with intervals between; now and then.See also: Interval of many years. The evidence of wear that is apparent on manyIrish halberds in the form of nicks and dents (O'Flaherty 2002:110-19) may therefore represent extensive use over a long period oftime, accumulated from sporadic combat, interspersed with periods ofnon-use. A similar observation is made in a recent paper by Woodward etal. (2005) in relation to Early Bronze Age daggers of Armorico-Britishtype from certain 'Wessex' burials, where the pattern of wearsuggests long periods of use and perhaps heirloom status. The lesson forus is to avoid the extreme assumptions: too often we tend to think interms of weapons as either functional or ceremonial when they can fulfilboth roles simultaneously. Bridgford touches on much the same point whenshe says, 'A sword may simultaneously be, or have the potential tobe, a beautiful object, an efficient killing tool, a symbol of power andwealth, an implied or actual threat, a sacrifice, a gift, a reward, apledge of loyalty and/or an embodiment of the idea of conflict'(1997: 95). The same is true of the halberd and one is minded of Bruck'sarguments about the artificiality of the distinctions drawn by modernresearchers between what is symbolic and what is practical (1999). The manner in which the Early Bronze Age halberd is likely to havebeen used meant that its success depended on certain norms of combatbeing respected. Unlike its medieval cousin, the Early Bronze Agehalberd is really only suitable for single combat against a similarly orworse-armed opponent, and only in circumstances where defensive armouris not being used. A wood and leather helmet A leather helmet is a form of protective headgear (a helmet) fashioned primarily out of leather (usually cowhide).Humans have manufactured leather clothing, including headgear, for millennia. would have affordedconsiderable protection against a halberd-blow as would a simple shieldof wood, leather or wicker. As the Irish halberd was probably wieldedtwo-handed, it is difficult to see how its user could also manage ashield. Armed with a shield, a warrior equipped even with just a daggeris likely to get the better of to obtain an advantage over; to surpass; to subdue.See also: Get an opponent armed with a halberd. Unlikethe spear, the halberd cannot be used as thrusting weapon to get past anopponent's guard and it runs serious risk of damage on impact witha wooden, wicker or leather shield. In this context, it may be significant that changes were takingplace during the Bronze Age at this time in relation to daggers. Thesewere now becoming longer, changing from a stabbing weapon to a thrustingone. It is interesting to speculate whether the dagger and the halberd,which both reflect a stabbing action, fell from fashion around the sametime because of developments in combat which saw a thrusting actionemerge instead, reflected by the evolution later of weapons like therapier and the spear. Just as the halberd replicates the stabbing actionof a hand-held dagger at long-range, so too does the spear replicate thethrusting action of a rapier, again at long-range. Recent experimentalwork suggests that the spear out-performs the rapier in combat and sobecame the primary weapon of the Middle Bronze Age in Britain (Davis:2006). In this respect, it is tempting to see the spear as ultimatelyreplacing the halberd, in the same way as the rapier ultimately replaces(at least in part) the combat potential of the dagger. The surprisinglyearly dating of the Kilmahamogue shield to 1950-1540 BC (3445 [+ or -]70 BP: OxA-2429. Hedges et al. 1991), also suggests that this form ofdefensive equipment may have started to make its presence felt inIreland around the time that halberds fall out of fashion here. Thatbeing the case, the demise of the halberd in Ireland may have been adirect function of its previous importance as a weapon rather than asymbol: once it ceased to be viable as a weapon, it could either becomesymbolic or disappear. In practice, it seems to have done both. Acknowledgements This paper reflects aspects of research carried out as part of aPhD thesis submitted to the School of Archaeology, University CollegeDublin. I am grateful for the advice of many in this regard, but inparticular acknowledge with gratitude the input and support of Dr JoannaBruck and Professor Barry Raftery who supervised my original research,and the invaluable advice of Dr Stuart Needham on so many aspects of theresearch. Mr Liam Walsh of ICM ICM IntercomICM Integrated Crop ManagementICM International Congress of MathematiciansICM Information Classification and ManagementICM Intelligent Contact Management (Cisco)ICM International Creative Management Camolin, a specialised sheep killingplant in Co. Wexford, facilitated the trials which were recorded by MrChristy Philpott by video and still photography. The replica halberd wasmade by Boyd Rankin William Boyd Rankin (born July 5, 1984) is an Irish cricketer. He is a right-arm medium-fast bowler.Born in Derry, Northern Ireland, he is a tall bowler who stands at 6ft 8 inches and has a distinctive bouncing action in his bowling. of Irish Arms and is testament to his craftsmanship. Received: 31 May 2006. Accepted: 7 September 2006. Revised: 22October 2006 References ABELANET, J. 1986. Signes sans paroles: cent siecles d'artrupestre en Europe occidentale. Poitiers: Hachette. ALLEN, I.M., D. BRITTON & H.H. COUGHLAN. 1970. 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