Managing quality in higher education institutions of the 21st century: A framework for the future.

Managing quality in higher education institutions of the 21st century: A framework for the future. The Australian university system This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since April 2007. developed with a commitment toacademic independence of the sort expressed by yon Humboldt in earlynineteenth-century Europe. `Pursuit of truth' came to be seen bymany members of the academic community as a sufficient safeguard ofquality outcomes in higher education higher educationStudy beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. . However, changes such as`massification' and subsequent blurring of the divide betweenuniversity and vocational education vocational education,training designed to advance individuals' general proficiency, especially in relation to their present or future occupations. The term does not normally include training for the professions. have led to increased demands foraccountability. Much of the current policy framework relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acchighereducation will probably survive for many years, despite movements in thepolitical spectrum, and the issue of quality must be reassessed in thiscontext Suggested models for the future assessment of quality in highereducation include the development of statements of purpose forindividual institutions, increased benchmarking among institutions ofsimilar natures, more use of student feedback, and appraisal of qualityin research. The nature of universities -- autonomy and accountability The Australian university system developed over nearly a centuryand a half from British origins, with strong influence, particularly inthe early years, from Dublin and from Scottish universities. As inEurope, there was the clear commitment to academic independence, of thekind articulated by von Humboldt von Humboldt may refer to: Wilhelm von Humboldt - a Prussian minister, linguist and philosopher Alexander von Humboldt - a Prussian naturalist and explorer , in the context of the establishment ofthe University of Berlin in 1809, expressed in the terms Lernfreiheitand Lehrfreiheit. These were interpreted as freedom to explore ideasthrough scholarship and research and freedom to teach whatever wasjudged, academically, to be appropriate. In the new Prussian Union The Prussian Union may refer to: The Prussian Confederation, a league of cities formed in 1440 to resist taxes levied by the Teutonic Order The Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church), a merger of Prussia's Lutheran and Reformed churches announced in 1817 ,universities were seen as both a source of trained minds to serve thestate and the source of new ideas "New Ideas" is the debut single by Scottish New Wave/Indie Rock act The Dykeenies. It was first released as a Double A-side with "Will It Happen Tonight?" on July 17, 2006. The band also recorded a video for the track. in many areas from which both thestate and fast-developing industry would benefit. Yet, even in thosetimes, a tension between academia and the state existed, and accordingto according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Anrich (cited in Fallon, 1980), von Humboldt took the view that: the naming of professors must be held exclusively as the prerogative of the state. It is certainly not a good arrangement to permit the faculty more influence over this process than a sympathetic and reasonable ministry would permit as a matter of course. Furthermore, the nature of the university is too closely tied to the vital interests of the state. (p. 25) Professors are still appointed by the state both in France andGermany. The tension between academia and state was to evolve over manyyears. According to Anrich (cited in Fallon, 1980) one can cite thedismissal of the Gottingen Seven, within 30 years of the founding of theUniversity of Berlin, because of public protest at the King'srevocation The recall of some power or authority that has been granted.Revocation by the act of a party is intentional and voluntary, such as when a person cancels a Power of Attorney that he has given or a will that he has written. of the Constitution of the State of Hanover, as an example.Another was the revocation through government legislation of the degreeof an Assistant Professor of Physics, Dr Arons, in 1898 after makingspeeches advocating a Social Democrat social democracyn.A political theory advocating the use of democratic means to achieve a gradual transition from capitalism to socialism.social democrat n. ideology. In the English-speaking traditions, the fundamental principle ofacademic autonomy was frequently expressed by academics and commonlyaccepted by governments. Judge Felix Frankfurter Felix Frankfurter (November 15, 1882 – February 22, 1965) was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Early lifeFrankfurter was born in Vienna, Austria. , in the case Sweezy vs.New Hampshire New Hampshire,one of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts (S), Vermont, with the Connecticut R. forming the boundary (W), the Canadian province of Quebec (NW), and Maine and a short strip of the Atlantic Ocean (E). (1957), defined the four essential freedoms of auniversity as being: `to determine for itself on academic grounds whomay teach, what may be taught, how it should be taught, and who may beadmitted to study'. Frankfurter (quoted in Bok, 1982) went on tosay: `For society's good, political power must abstain from abstain fromverb refrain from, avoid, decline, give up, stop, refuse, cease, do without, shun, renounce, eschew, leave off, keep from, forgo, withhold from, forbear, desist from, deny yourself, kick ( intrusion into this activity of freedom, except for reasons that areexigent EXIGENT, or EXIGI FACIAS, practice. A writ issued in the course of proceedings to outlawry, deriving its name and application from the mandatory words found therein, signifying, "that you cause to be exacted or required; and it is that proceeding in an outlawry which, with the writ of and obviously compelling' (p.38). In this country, a clear and positive statement in support of theindependence of universities was contained in the Sixth report of theAustralian Universities Commission (1975). One of the roles of a university in a free society is to be the conscience and the critic of that society; such a role cannot be fulfilled if the university is expected to be an arm of government policy. Moreover, universities must prepare their students for life in a world, the characteristics of which are necessarily imperfectly foreseen. An institution which geared its activities to known requirements could hardly provide an education appropriate to meet as yet unknown problems. (p.58) Many western governments up to the mid-fifties had taken an`arm's length' view of universities, respecting theirtraditional autonomy. Academic study was seen as contributing to thequality of life in the community. Most research could be embraced byscholarship and demand for expensive laboratory facilities was verylimited. Such attitudes could be seen as expressed by Robert Gordon For other uses of "Robert Gordon", see Robert Gordon (disambiguation).Robert Gordon (1668-1731), a 17th century merchant and philanthropist, was born in Aberdeen. He was the only son of Arthur Gordon who married Isabella Menzies of Balgownie. Menzies, then Prime Minister, in a speech delivered in the CanberraUniversity College Canberra University College was a tertiary education institution established in Canberra by the Australian government and the University of Melbourne in 1930. The College operated until 1960 when it was incorporated into the Australian National University as the School of General in 1939: What then are we to look for in a true University? What causes should it serve? In the light of what ideals is it to discharge its great and magnificent responsibilities? My answers are seven in number: First, the University must be a home of pure culture and learning ... `academic learning' as it is sometimes half-contemptuously designated, is one of those civilised and civilising things which the world needs as never before ... Second, the University must serve as a training school for the professions ... a great lawyer must be superior to his technique ... He must see himself as one of the creators or guardians of a developing juristic system whose function in a growing and changing world is to minister constantly to the good and just life ... Third, the University must serve as a liaison between the academician and the `good practical man' ... it is the almost unknown and badly paid `pure' scientist who, as a rule, opens the doors through which the Edisons have been able to carry their telephones ... There must be mutuality between the theory and the practice ... Fourth, the University must be the home of research. This is an impatient age. We want results ... The work of research requires infinite patience, precise observation, an objective mind, and unclouded honesty ... Fifth, the University must be a trainer of character ... Asquith [said that a university would be judged] ... `by the degree in which it has helped to raise, to enlarge, to enrich, to complete, the true life of the man, and by him and through him, the corporate life of the community' ... Sixth, the University must be a training ground for leaders ... I notice here and there a disposition to think that the business of a democratic parliament is simply to ascertain and reproduce current public opinion ... Democracy demands leaders and leadership. It demands leaders who will not be afraid to tell the people that they are wrong and endeavour to persuade and guide them ... Seventh, the University must be a custodian of mental liberty and the unfettered search for truth ... which so far from being opposed, are complementary; each is essential to the other. (Menzies, 1939, pp. 11-31) `Pursuit of truth', implicit in Adj. 1. implicit in - in the nature of something though not readily apparent; "shortcomings inherent in our approach"; "an underlying meaning"underlying, inherent the ideals of scholarship,came to be seen by many in the academic community as a sufficientsafeguard for the achievement of the quality of outcomes of investmentby the community in higher education. It was seen as further underpinnedby the demand for access to the programs offered within the community,an ever-increasing demand over the past 25 years in country aftercountry. The seeds of change were, however, germinating as country aftercountry began to take a more interventionist approach in the inevitablychanging circumstances in which education policies evolved. Martin Trow trow?intr.v. trowed, trow��ing, trows1. Archaic To think.2. Obsolete To suppose.[Middle English trowen, from Old English (1974) wrote of the inexorable trend towards `masshigher education' and saw inevitable consequences arising from thistrend. He commented on the consequent rise in number of junior staffaccompanying increasing student enrolments and the inevitability oftheir gaining significant political power within institutions, tendingto break down the consensus values by which elite institutions weregoverned. This situation, he foresaw, would be seen to provide`legitimate' grounds for government to intervene in processes ofuniversity governance to resolve dissent An explicit disagreement by one or more judges with the decision of the majority on a case before them.A dissent is often accompanied by a written dissenting opinion, and the terms dissent and dissenting opinion are used interchangeably. . Trow foresaw the rise of professional managers in universities asthey became greatly increased in size and increased demands from theemployers of graduates that universities should be more vocational intheir educational offerings, with inevitable pressure for greateraccountability in selection of curricula and quality of teaching.Professional managers would, in his view, inevitably be more subject toinfluence by government than part-time managers still actively involvedin teaching and research. Respect for the independent role of universities in the developmentof society, of its professions, and in expanding knowledge had been at ahigh level through the 1950s and 1960s in many western democracies, butinstitutions of applied or technical education, and teacher trainingcolleges, enjoyed far less autonomy. They had generally been subject toa far greater extent to `external' or bureaucratic bu��reau��crat?n.1. An official of a bureaucracy.2. An official who is rigidly devoted to the details of administrative procedure.bu control inrespect of content of courses, or been subject to a regular inspectionas to quality of delivery. Their qualifications were either awarded byexternal accrediting bodies or subject to tight regulation if grantingtheir own diplomas or certificates. In general, the awarding of degrees, particularly higher degrees,and explicit public funding Public funding is money given from tax revenue or other governmental sources to an individual, organization, or entity. See alsoPublic funding of sports venues Research funding Funding body to undertake research, had been restrictedto the universities in English-speaking countries. The rapid expansionof higher education that occurred progressively over the past 40 yearsled inexorably in��ex��o��ra��ble?adj.Not capable of being persuaded by entreaty; relentless: an inexorable opponent; a feeling of inexorable doom.See Synonyms at inflexible. to increasing ambiguity at the margin between universityand vocational education. In the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , applied education becamea major feature of the offerings of many state universities. Clark Kerr Clark Kerr (May 17, 1911 – December 1, 2003) was the first Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (1952–1958) and the 12th President of the University of California (1958–1967). Academic backgroundKerr earned an A.B. coined the phrase `multiversity' in 1963 to describe thistransition. As predicted by Trow in 1974, universities inevitably became caughtup in changing attitudes on the part of both governments and employers.In return for funding, there was a desire to regulate, to a far greaterextent than hitherto, the `what' of education as well as the`how', as had long been a feature of institutions committedprimarily in applied education. Universities increasingly were expectedto justify their funding in terms of economic output as trainers ofemployees. A changing scene for universities Why the great growth in post-secondary education? The reasons aremultiple. Rising youth unemployment was a potent factor; the changingnature of employment was another. It became apparent to young peopleacross the western world that education is a critical element indetermining the nature of the career that they would be able to pursuein emerging post-industrial societies "Post-industrial" redirects here. For the grouping of music genres, see post-industrial (music).A post-industrial society is a society in which an economic transition has occurred from a manufacturing based economy to a service based economy, a diffusion of national and . Specialisation specialisation - A reduction in generality, usually for the sake of increased efficiency. If a piece of code is specialised for certain values of certain variables (usually function arguments), this is known as "partial evaluation". In a language with overloading (e.g. in employmentroles also contributed to the processes. University education was nolonger primarily for an upper middle-class elite. There has, as aconsequence, been striking growth, worldwide, in participation in thelater years of secondary schooling and in higher education -- much of itassociated with a strong commitment to preparation for employment. The expansion in numbers in numbered parts; as, a book published in numbers.See also: Number led to continuing demands by universitiesfor increased funding from the public purse to support not onlyundergraduate but also graduate courses. The increasing demand forplaces and for funding by universities was, in itself, reason forgovernments to look more closely at issues of control and at outcomes interms of the employability of graduates. The huge and rapid growth inknowledge through research has been a further element in the pressureson government outlays OutlaysPayments on obligations in the form of cash, checks, the issuance of bonds or notes, or the maturing of interest coupons. , as universities have sought support for majorresearch activities and costly research facilities. Another element in the change in attitudes on the part ofgovernments has arisen from economic considerations. Following the YomKippur War Yom Kippur War:see Arab-Israeli Wars. in 1972, there was dramatic change in the way internationalfinance functioned, to accommodate huge sums of money looking for Looking forIn the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. investment opportunities following the huge inflation of oil priceswhich resulted from decisions by the oil-producing Arab nations. Financeand trade inevitably crossed national boundaries as never before and anew era of internationalisation (programming) internationalisation - (i18n, globalisation, enabling, software enabling) The process and philosophy of making software portable to other locales.For successful localisation, products must be technically and culturally neutral. began. Western democracies foundthemselves, for the first time in many years, seeking to rein in to check the speed of, or cause to stop, by drawing the reins.to cause (a person) to slow down or cease some activity; - to rein in is used commonly of superiors in a chain of command, ordering a subordinate to moderate or cease some activity deemed excessive.See also: Rein Rein publicexpenditure in order to compete effectively in the new internationalera. No longer was it the task of government to designate des��ig��nate?tr.v. des��ig��nat��ed, des��ig��nat��ing, des��ig��nates1. To indicate or specify; point out.2. To give a name or title to; characterize.3. the nexttarget for additional public investment funded from inexorably growingrevenues, but rather to find ways to ensure greater benefits fromexisting commitments, or to find more cost-effective ways to deliver anyand all publicly funded services. Confluence of these many factors led to a growing demand, incountry after country, for a greater degree of accountability for thequality of publicly funded education, linked with examination of ways tocontain the growing demands on government outlays. Concurrent moves bybusiness organisations in several countries questioned whether thecourses offered prepared graduates adequately for employment. Emphasison vocational relevance of university courses and the practicalapplicability of research began to loom loom,frame or machine used for weaving; there is evidence that the loom has been in use since 4400 B.C.Modern looms are of two types, those with a shuttle (the part that carries the weft through the shed) and those without; the latter draw the weft from a large. In 1975, the OECD OECD:see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. established a program on International Managementin Higher Education, to examine, for the first time, issues concerningevaluation of institutional performance. In Holland, processes forassessment of the quality and appropriateness of higher educationemerged from government, to which the universities responded rapidly. Inthe United Kingdom, the Jarratt Committee was established by theCommittee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals (CVCP CVCP Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals (UK)CVCP Committee of Vice Chancellors and Principals (UK)CVCP Coding Violation C-bit - Path ). In Australia, asimilar study on Efficiency and Effectiveness in Higher Education wasundertaken in 1986, initially driven by concerns in the Department ofFinance, but with full participation by the Commonwealth TertiaryEducation Tertiary education, also referred to as third-stage, third level education, or higher education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Commission (CTEC CTEC Course and Teacher Evaluation Council (Northwestern University, Office of the Register)CTEC Certified Technical Education CenterCTEC Certified Technical Education Center (Microsoft)). The autonomy of academics and ofuniversities, as expressed by von Humboldt, came under strong challenge.These trends continue today. Development of processes of accountability and academic audit The Jarratt Report (Steering Committee steer��ing committeen.A committee that sets agendas and schedules of business, as for a legislative body or other assemblage.steering committeeNoun , 1985) led to establishmentin 1990, by the CVCP, of an Academic Audit Unit, with a mandate todevelop processes for audit of quality of teaching and of management inuniversities. Its processes were based primarily on self-audit,monitored and assessed by people experienced in academic management fromwithin the system. The so-called `Public Sector' (polytechnics andcolleges) already had in place processes for inspection of teachingprograms, which were centrally supervised through the Council forNational Academic Awards The Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) was a degree awarding authority in the United Kingdom from 1965 until 1992. The CNAA awarded academic degrees at polytechnics, Central Institutions and other non-university institutions such as Colleges of Higher Education , in return for accreditation. Many of theseprocesses have now been subsumed into functions related to qualityassurance associated with the Higher Education Funding Councils Funding Council may refer to: Higher Education Funding Council for England, a public body of the Department for Education and Skills in the United Kingdom Higher Education Funding Council for Wales, an intermediary body in Wales following the merging of the Public Sector with the universities. The Australian Efficiency and Effectiveness study in 1986identified the need for greatly improved accountability of performanceby universities, their academic staff and their management in terms ofquality of outcomes of all kinds. It regarded the applied and technicaleducation sector as needing to continue separately from universities.Little was implemented directly from this report, with a change ofminister following a general election, and a new agenda emerged underJohn Dawkins John Sydney "Joe" Dawkins, AO (born 2 March 1947), Australian politician, was Treasurer in the Keating Labor government from December 1991 to December 1993.Dawkins was born in Perth, Western Australia, a member of Western Australia's wealthy landed elite. . Meanwhile in other countries, particularly Holland, Franceand Sweden, in addition to the United Kingdom, new approaches tomonitoring quality of university functions were evolving. In Australia, Bourke (1986) published an influential studycommissioned by the CTEC, entitled en��ti��tle?tr.v. en��ti��tled, en��ti��tling, en��ti��tles1. To give a name or title to.2. To furnish with a right or claim to something: Quality measures in universities. Upto that time, quality assurance for universities had rested uponoccasional national discipline reviews and the processes of professionalaccreditation in a number of fields. The Bourke publication wasinfluential in stimulating thought as to appropriate processes forassessment of the quality of university endeavours, and continues to becited in many countries. Many universities were insensitive in��sen��si��tive?adj.1. Not physically sensitive; numb.2. a. Lacking in sensitivity to the feelings or circumstances of others; unfeeling.b. to theseportents of change, but their confidence in the security offered by thetradition of academic autonomy was seen to be severely tested. The Dawkins era The appointment of John Dawkins as Minister for Employment,Education and Training in Australia in July 1987 brought great changesto higher education, touching on almost all aspects of nationalorganisation, funding and industrial relations industrial relationspl.n.Relations between the management of an industrial enterprise and its employees.industrial relationsNoun, plthe relations between management and workers . The changes includeddisappearance of the binary system binary system,numeration system based on powers of 2, in contrast to the familiar decimal system, which is based on powers of 10. In the binary system, only the digits 0 and 1 are used. and a great centralisation n. 1. same as centralization.Noun 1. centralisation - the act of consolidating power under a central controlcentralizationconsolidation, integration - the act of combining into an integral whole; "a consolidation of two corporations"; ofauthority in the Commonwealth Government under the arrangements tocontrol the Unified National System (UNS UnsThe symbol for the element unnilseptium. ), embracing both universitiesas they then were and the vocational advanced education sector through aprocess of widespread amalgamations (Dawkins, 1988). The technical andfurther education (TAFE TAFE(in Australia) Technical and Further Education ) sector was seen primarily as a feeder feederabbreviation for self-feeders. Used in feeding groups of animals at intervals of several days. Feed has to be dry and comminuted so that it will run down the spouts from the hopper into the troughs. system tothe UNS, with pressure for all institutions to indicate pathways forTAFE students to follow to access university places. While, in other countries, processes for assessment of quality ofuniversity performance were evolving, little happened in Australiabeyond tentative approaches based on putative Alleged; supposed; reputed.A putative father is the individual who is alleged to be the father of an illegitimate child.A putative marriage is one that has been contracted in Good Faith and pursuant to ignorance, by one or both parties, that certain performance indicators ofa kind which, it was thought, government officers would be able to usein their oversight of the UNS. The performance indicators were heavilycriticised. Attempts to compare institutions and to regulate the systemon this basis were dropped following strong opposition from theAustralian Vice-Chancellors Committee (AVCC AVCC Australian Vice-Chancellors' CommitteeAVCC Average Carbonaceous ChondritesAVCC Audio Visual Consultant CenterAVCC anti Virus Control Center ). However, research andpractice in development of performance indicators for higher educationcontinued overseas (Cave, Hanney, & Kogan, 1991), despite increasingrecognition of the dangers associated with distortion of institutionaland academic behaviour to conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?"fit, meetcoordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" the indicators where funding wasseen to be tied to their application. Another trend emerged in the working out of the Dawkins agenda.Universities came to lie within the responsibilities of a new NationalBoard of Employment, Education and Training (NBEET NBEET National Board of Employment Education and Training (Australia)), charged withadvising government on a wide range of issues including schools,technical education and training and other employment-related matters.Restructuring of the workforce was seen as being achieved throughdevelopment of a complex and centrally controlled structure defining`competencies' required for every form of employment, to be set outin relation to an Australian Standards Framework. Certified See certification. possessionof appropriate skills within this system could, it was envisaged, giveentry to any and every level of employment in the country. Theprofessions were seen as being embraced by this process so thatuniversities necessarily needed to offer all their courses in a moderelevant to this system. The adequacy of university education was to beassessed in terms of provision of the necessary skills for varied formsof employment. A 1992 report from NBEET, entitled Fitting the need, advocated a`sector' approach to funding of post-compulsory education.Universities, TAFE colleges, private training providers and schoolswould compete with one another to bid for `growth' funds to delivercourses in fields designated as national or regional priorities. Allofferings were seen as essentially interchangeable in��ter��change��a��ble?adj.That can be interchanged: interchangeable items of clothing; interchangeable automotive parts.in , and universitieswere urged to market their activities in terms of `competency-basededucation and training' (CBET CBET Competency-Based Education and TrainingCBET Community-Based English Tutoring Program (California)CBET Certified Biomedical Equipment TechnicianCBET Cell Biology of Excitable Tissues (clinical research study)). Recognition of the special natureof university education, as linked with expanding the minds ofundergraduates in a context informed by cultural diversity and research,was fundamentally threatened. Differing views were expressed within theAVCC. There was strong support for the competency-based prescriptionfrom some, but strong and vocal opposition by others, particularly thosein traditional, research-based universities, to whom the competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. approach was seen as antipathetic to the tenets of liberal education.The primary commitment of development of an inquiring inquiring,v to draw information from a client—whether by verbal questioning or physical examination—to assess the person's state of health. mind and broadlyeducated graduate was not seen to be embraced by the training andstrongly occupational direction of CBET. Protracted pro��tract?tr.v. pro��tract��ed, pro��tract��ing, pro��tracts1. To draw out or lengthen in time; prolong: disputants who needlessly protracted the negotiations.2. public controversy was followed by the decision ofMinister Peter Baldwin This is an article about the actor, for the Australian Labor politician, see Peter Baldwin (Australian politician)Peter Baldwin (born 29 July 1933, Chichester, West Sussex, England) is a British actor. , successor to John Dawkins in higher education,that universities would not be required to structure their courses toserve the mandates of CBET. Universities were no longer to beaccountable through a complex network of central industry-based bodiesestablishing highly detailed prescriptions for all forms of employment,including the professions. Evaluation of higher education and of thetraining offered was not to be prescribed pre��scribe?v. pre��scribed, pre��scrib��ing, pre��scribesv.tr.1. To set down as a rule or guide; enjoin. See Synonyms at dictate.2. To order the use of (a medicine or other treatment). in these terms. However, theissues of accountability of the quality of education offered remained tobe resolved. The Baldwin reforms Peter Baldwin had succeeded to office as Commonwealth Minister forHigher Education in 1991. He was confronted by institutions asserting onthe one hand that they met the highest of international standards (withlittle objective evidence to support these claims) but at the same timeclaiming that lack of funding was jeopardising the quality of theeducation that they offered. After wide debate and consultation, an Australian system forquality assurance in higher education evolved (Baldwin, 1991). This cameto be based on external inspection of institutions, but with strongelements of peer review. Judgements were based to a considerable extenton evaluation of materials produced by the institutions themselves.Procedures for quality assessment derived from industry contributed indevelopment of the processes. Reviews touched not only on quality ofteaching, but also on quality of institutional management in so far asthis was relevant to delivery of outcomes of high quality education.They also covered research and community contributions, although nogeneral agreement was reached on the indicators to be used in making theassessments. The process offered significant financial gains toinstitutions on the basis of demonstrated high performance. Some institutions, which had correctly read the changing sceneinternationally, had already set in train processes for strategicplanning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. and internal commitment to assessment of quality of performanceof academic staff through appraisal processes, and mechanisms to assessthe quality of teaching programs. For academic unions and a significantnumber of academic staff members, these changes did not receive readyacceptance. Where an institution had adopted such commitments throughconsultative collegial col��le��gi��al?adj.1. a. Characterized by or having power and authority vested equally among colleagues: "He . . . processes, what followed was in no way a threat.Leading such a cultural change in established universities was achallenge for vice-chancellors of no mean order. The annual reviews of institutions operated in 1993, 1994 and 1995,touching on a variety of aspects of institutional performance. Resultswere published with ranking of institutions clustered in broad groups.The outcomes were, inevitably, associated with considerable controversy,as two well-established universities found themselves in the second rankin the first evaluation round. Many newer universities were distressedto find themselves rated lowly low��ly?adj. low��li��er, low��li��est1. Having or suited for a low rank or position.2. Humble or meek in manner.3. Plain or prosaic in nature.adv.1. on quality assurance. However, theprocess came to be associated with rapid evolution of internalprocedures for self-assessment and quality assurance in universitieswhen institutional standing and very significant additional funding wasat stake. The program led to undoubted un��doubt��ed?adj.Accepted as beyond question; undisputed. See Synonyms at authentic.un��doubted��ly adv. improvement in recognition byacademics of the importance of the quality of the education offered,even if only relatively blunt instruments Blunt instrument is a legal description of a weapon used to hit someone, which does not have a sharp or penetrating point or edge. Their effect is usually blunt force trauma, to stun, or to break bones. They sometimes kill. were used in the assessmentprocedures. Processes, rapidly put in place, included the use of questionnairesto assess feedback from students and graduates on the quality of theteaching they received. Recognition of the importance of using realisticeducational objectives came to be revisited in some institutions.Progression rates for students came to the examined critically. Annualstaff appraisal was established in many institutions, despite claimsfrom unions that appraisal should only be used for `formative'purposes (to assist in commitments to staff development processes)rather than for any `summative' purpose (such as assessment forpromotion). National questionnaires were administered to graduates, withfindings highly critical of many institutions. In general terms, universities sought to provide a basis on whichthey could demonstrate that they undertook effective quality assurance.For institutions such as former colleges of advanced education, whichhad earlier depended entirely on external evaluation of their courses,without direct collegial involvement in the assessment, the challengewas greater; this was reflected in the generally higher ranking accordedto older traditional universities in each of the review rounds. Therecan be little doubt that the Baldwin initiative will have a lastinginfluence, as institutions came to accept an explicit commitment tomonitor the quality of their performance, particularly the quality ofeducation provided. A new era With a new Commonwealth Government in 1996, the prospect of radicalchange and funding reductions loomed large. Cuts to university recurrentgrants, failure to centrally fund staff salary adjustments andforeshadowed changes of emphasis in regulation have all contributed tothe new context for Australian universities. The competitive marketplace has become a reality in higher education in a number of waysalready. Many institutions have faced substantial funding crises andhave had to reduce staff numbers significantly. Release of the long-awaited Final report of the Review of HigherEducation Financing and Policy (1998) (the West report) has opened thedoor to the possibility of greater emphasis on student-based funding forthe system as it evolves. It has also been made clear that there is nointention on the part of the current government to re-establish theformer structure for surveillance of quality in the system. Rather,market forces in the form of student choice of institution for enrolmentare seen as a major incentive for the development and maintenance ofevidence of quality of programs offered. To meet this challenge, institutions will need to undertakerigorous assessment of their own strengths and weaknesses, and toemphasise those programs which are likely to meet the competitivechallenge of other institutions when they are dependent for funding onthe choices of a common pool of students. The world of marketing hasbecome a reality in higher education with the need for credible data tosupport the assertions of institutional publications. Adjustment of operating grants of universities in accordance withany major shortfall of enrolments had already been a fact under theprevious government, as had a foreshadowed requirement for universitiesto fund salary increases from within their existing budgets. However,even these warnings had not been heeded by many, it being assumed thatgovernment would recant and provide additional funding, under unionpressure, once salary rises had been approved. Universities were, in reality, already facing the likelihood ofmajor funding constraints prior to the change of government. Some newelements of policies have a distinctly bipartisan flavour (jargon) flavour - (US: flavor) 1. Variety, type, kind. "DDT commands come in two flavors." "These lights come in two flavors, big red ones and small green ones." See vanilla.2. The attribute that causes something to be flavourful. , althoughincreased funding associated with greater enrolments is a new element,implemented for the first time in 1998. Although existing formalpolicies fall well short of `vouchers', or funding linked directlywith student enrolments, the trend has clearly been in that direction.Much of the current policy framework will, almost certainly, survive formany years, regardless of movements in the political spectrum. The issueof quality needs to be reassessed in this context. Development of appropriate models Statements of purpose for Institutions Recognition of the varied expertise, special advantages and fieldsof endeavour of different institutions will be certain to become anissue of the highest importance as the new circumstances come toinfluence institutional behaviour and student choice. No longer willthere be seen to be 36 publicly funded universities operating incompetition with each other, providing the same opportunities. Rather,informal or formal groupings will emerge, and institutions will seek tooffer special characteristics, appropriate to particular students.Examples of groupings already emerging are: * major research-based universities * universities of technology * large generalist gen��er��al��istn.A physician whose practice is not oriented in a specific medical specialty but instead covers a variety of medical problems.generalistmetropolitan teaching institutions * regional universities * universities offering TAFE courses, and TAFE institutionsthemselves. Each of these will be in a position to offer special interests orfacilities appropriate for particular students, which will differ fromthose of other institutions. Fears that the older universities will growrapidly at the expense of others have little foundation, as theseinstitutions must inevitably concentrate on their own particularcharacter, offering teaching in an environment shaped by research and bypenetrating scholarship -- an environment not appropriate for allstudents. Regional universities will offer many attractions inAustralia, as in the United States, and the universities of technologyalready have well-established `branding'. Metropolitan generalistinstitutions are already large in many instances, and will be able tocater for remaining needs, many with close association with TAFE or withspecialist areas of employment. Institutions offering TAFE courses will overlap with othercategories, but methods for assessment of these courses, with theirstrong association with immediate employment needs, indicate the needfor separate recognition of the group for appropriate means ofassessment. Strategic planning of a realistic kind will become essential, inorder to provide a sensible and believable be��liev��a��ble?adj.Capable of eliciting belief or trust. See Synonyms at plausible.be��lieva��bil basis for informing potentialstudents, or in the current jargon jargon,pejorative term applied to speech or writing that is considered meaningless, unintelligible, or ugly. In one sense the term is applied to the special language of a profession, which may be unnecessarily complicated, e.g., "medical jargon. , for `marketing'. Students will want to evaluate the offerings and performance ofinstitutions, one against another, in groups such as these. Thoseinstitutions which participate in benchmarking exercises with theirpeers are likely to establish a clear long-term advantage over othersthat hold themselves apart. In reality, institutions will have to make decisions as to theirparticular character and aspirations aspirationsnpl → aspiraciones fpl(= ambition); ambici��n faspirationsnpl (= hopes, ambition) → aspirations fpl, knowing that they will stand orfall in comparison with others with similar declared interests andcommitments. Groupings will inevitably change with time as circumstancesand performance evolve. Benchmarking and the problems of institutional groupings Benchmarking with like institutions, in Australia and overseas, isdeveloping in several instances. These processes need to focus not onlyon the general issues in relation to student performance andsatisfaction. They need to recognise the different nature of courses, ofstudent populations, and also issues related to research and scholarshipand to vocational training where this is a major issue. Where relevant, comparisons need to cover interaction withindustry, the professions and the community, and with other specialfeatures and contributions which may be features of the institutions.Indicators of performance need to be developed which are, at least tosome degree, special to the group. Place of educational objectives as a basis for assessment Attempts to compare education programs between institutions thathave greatly differing student populations, with different needs andexpectations, are fraught fraught?adj.1. Filled with a specified element or elements; charged: an incident fraught with danger; an evening fraught with high drama.2. with problems. What matters for students isthat they learn to master a topic or educational challenge, withappropriate support. Where the need is for vocational training, validassessment of the employment-related competencies to be achieved isentirely appropriate. The use of student questionnaires, based on assessment ofexperience in striving to achieve declared educational and trainingobjectives, will be of great importance. Such approaches are morerelevant than broad questions relating to overall satisfaction, whichare likely to be significantly influenced by the level of expectation ofthe students, more able students frequently being more demanding.However, in comparing like institutions, such factors should not be aproblem. Use of external examiners The external examiner plays an important role in all degree level examinations in higher education in the United Kingdom. The external examiner system was introduced into the UK during the 19th century, and it is therefore also found in countries whose higher education systems were External examiners are widely used in assessment of higher degreeresearch theses, but are, unfortunately, not widely used in finalhonours assessment, which makes comparison of outcomes difficult even atthis level. In the undergraduate streams, there is little externalexamining in this country, although this has been a major factor in themaintenance of academic standards in the United Kingdom over many years. Cost and distance may be minor contributors to the differencebetween Australia and the United Kingdom, but if the processes ofbenchmarking between like institutions, referred to above, becomesestablished, cross-examining on a `sampling' basis may become thenorm and may go a considerable way to establish equivalence betweeninstitutions. Student feedback processes and their limitations In the changed culture of Australian universities in the 1990s,management prerogatives are increasingly accepted. Institutions mustcompete in a market place for the students by virtue of whom theirfunding will be determined. It is inevitable, and appropriate, thatstudents be seen as clients of their institutions, as well as partnersin the educational process. Understanding student needs and assessinghow well they have been served will increasingly be an essential elementto be taken into account in reviewing the performance of an institution,both internally and for external purposes. Ramsden (1991) made an important contribution in the development ofuse of a course experience questionnaire as a performance indicator.Development of technical expertise in the design of such instruments andof wise judgement concerning their uses is of great importance.Difficulties arise in taking into account the differing background ofstudents in comparison of one institution with another, but none theless the use of such instruments has been of great importance in gainingobjective evidence of quality of teaching, and has changed the cultureof many sections of institutions greatly for the better. Poor teaching or neglect of student needs cannot be toleratedwithout attempts to remedy the defects, and universities willundoubtedly be more responsive to student needs when the marketperceives which institutions do or do not use such instruments on aregular and planned basis. Application of similar instruments inassessment of retrospective views of recent graduates is anotherpotentially powerful instrument for comparison of institutions. Safeguarding academic excellence in less popular areas The issue of general or liberal education is of great importance inthe new environment of a utilitarian approach to educational values. Theresponsibility must rest both with the relevant academic communities andwith universities to emphasise the importance of disciplines such asphilosophy or language studies in the humanities, or of mathematics,physics and chemistry for the sciences, as they communicate both withstudents and with prospective students. Institutions have theopportunity to shape the pattern of education that they offer to variousgroups of students. Students who complete a university course without gaining a broadeducation, a capacity to make their own judgement on the basis ofevidence, and an understanding of the sources of changing knowledge andhow to evaluate them will be poorly prepared for a changing future.Liberal education is fundamental to preparing people for leadershiproles in society. Learning to think is increasingly important in a society wherefacts are readily available through information technology, but wherethe distinction between facts and knowledge, with an understanding oftheir significance, becomes increasingly important. Even more importantis the distinction between knowledge and wisdom, as judgement based onthe application of knowledge becomes critical in many areas of humanendeavour. Quality assessment in research Assurance of quality of research is an important question and oneto which there is no set of readily agreed answers. Traditionally, themost critical issue for monitoring the outcomes of research is that ofcareful evaluation of material submitted for publication in learnedjournals, where referees expert in the particular discipline makeconsidered judgements prior to acceptance for publication. Books aresubject to review and appraisal and this environment is one ofcontinuing and rigorous public appraisal. Another criterion of quality is inherent in the situation arisingfrom the fact that there is always strong competition for additionalresources to carry out research. Commonwealth competitive grants (fromthe Australian Research Council The Australian Research Council (ARC) is the Australian Government’s main agency for allocating research funding to academics and researchers in Australian universities. and its predecessor, Australian ResearchGrants Committee, and the National Health and Medical Research Council The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) is Australia's peak funding body for medical research, with a budget of nearly A$500M a year . The Council was established to develop and maintain health standards and is responsible for implementing the )have, over more than 30 years, been allocated on the basis of advicearising from peer review. Although it can be argued that this processfavours `fashionable', or conventional research, there can be nodoubt that the circumstances of peer review are such as to favourrigorous research. The allocation of research-related funding on the basis ofindicators of performance has raised different issues. The review ofhigher education research policy, in 1988, led to the introduction offunding for research infrastructure. Infrastructure support wasallocated, in the first instance, on the basis of the CommonwealthCompetitive Research Grant Index as an indicator of need forinfrastructure support. It was based on recognition that the researchgrants met only marginal costs Marginal costThe increase or decrease in a firm's total cost of production as a result of changing production by one unit.marginal costThe additional cost needed to produce or purchase one more unit of a good or service. for institutions, rather than theinevitable overheads and cost of provision of laboratory facilities,libraries, computing computing - computer and many other needs for both research and researchtraining. However, over the following years, pressure developed torecognise a much wider range of research funding Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and as a basis forinfrastructure support. The next stage was a stated need to recogniseresearch outputs, rather than inputs as a significant element in thebasis for allocation of funds. Counting number counting numbern.A natural number. of publications in refereed journals refereed journal,n a professional or literary journal or publication in which articles or papers are selected for publication by a panel of readers or referees who are experts in the field. has become animportant annual ritual of data collection, with considerabledisagreement as to what constitutes a valid referee process for somejournals. It is the view of many that this has led not only to muchwaste of academic time, but to the development of incentives to frequentpublication of short papers and short-term research objectives. It maynot be coincidence that, in recent years, there has been a significantreduction in the extent to which Australian scientific papers have beencited by other researchers internationally (Grigg, 1996). The United Kingdom Research Assessment Exercise has been adifferent approach to the same problem, also associated with allocationof substantial funding arising from the outcomes. The process isreviewed by Bourke (1997). The exercise was costly, both in direct andindirect costs Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to a particular function or product; these are fixed costs. Indirect costs include taxes, administration, personnel and security costs. See alsoOperating cost , and has been subject to considerable criticism by boththe Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals, and by the NationalAcademies. Evaluation by use of citation indices is favoured by some, but hasinevitable limitations in terms of the range of journals surveyed(Bourke & Butler, 1996). Despite their limitations, citation indicesmay prove to be an important addition to the armamentarium ar��ma��men��tar��i��umn. pl. ar��ma��men��tar��i��ums or ar��ma��men��tar��i��aThe complete equipment of a physician or medical institution, including drugs, books, supplies, and instruments. in researchevaluation. In general terms, use of the Commonwealth Competitive Grants Indexprovides outcomes very similar to those obtained with far greater costin terms of academic time and should, almost certainly, be used as thebasis for distribution of both infrastructure and research quantumfunding. Quality assessment in graduate research training Assessment of the quality of research training is another importantissue to which little study has been devoted. External and frequentlyinternational examining processes for PhD theses are widely used andform one important safeguard. Questionnaires as to the quality ofsupervision are likely to be introduced and, if wisely used, could actas a stimulus to identify poor supervision, just as student coursework courseworkNounwork done by a student and assessed as part of an educational courseNoun 1. coursework - work assigned to and done by a student during a course of study; usually it is evaluated as part of the student's questionnaires acted as a stimulus to improved teaching. Possible role for a `buffer body' Government concern to monitor the quality of performance of thehigher education system in return for funding will not diminish.Although market forces will, no doubt, play their part, a federalminister will inevitably seek expert advice. The choice lies betweenadvice drawn from the bureaucracy, which is likely to be based primarilyon the use of performance indicators, chosen to serve desired outcomes,and advice given from a body of persons with expertise relevant to thehigher education system. The culture of senior government officers is, almost invariably in��var��i��a��ble?adj.Not changing or subject to change; constant.in��vari��a��bil ,one in which control is sought through use of data. It would beinevitable that the burden of data collection would mount steadily. Datawhich are made public, providing they can be readily interpreted by thecommunity, may add to accountability and hence to the quality ofservices provided. However, it is my view that little if any of the datacollection concerning research has produced any improvement in qualityof the nation's research effort. Rather it has greatly distracted dis��tract��ed?adj.1. Having the attention diverted.2. Suffering conflicting emotions; distraught.dis��tract academic research workers from the real task of serious, long-termcontribution to knowledge. Performance indicators may give broadindications of quality of performance, but inevitably behaviour tends tobe shaped to meet the indicators, usually with deleterious deleteriousadj. harmful. effects onthe system. Given the complexities and vital nature of evolution withineducation systems internationally, I do not believe Australia can affordto run the risks associated with control by government officers relyingprimarily on numerical data Numerical data (or quantitative data) is data measured or identified on a numerical scale. Numerical data can be analysed using statistical methods, and results can be displayed using tables, charts, histograms and graphs. . The alternative is creation of a buffer body, akin to theAustralian Universities Commission (AUC AUCarea under curve ) of the 1960s and early 1970s.This is, of course, not without risks. However, such a body, ifcomprised of people with real expertise and if publicly accountable,could offer a great deal, as did the AUC and its successor bodies underMartin and Karmel. This option has far greater appeal than that ofdirect bureaucratic control. Keywordsacademic achievementaccountabilitybenchmarkingevaluationquality assuranceuniversity outcomes assessment References Australian Universities Commission. (1975). Sixth report(Parliamentary Paper No. 271). Canberra: AGPS AGPS Assisted Global Positioning SystemAGPS Advanced Government Purchasing SystemAGPS Advanced Geo Positioning Solutions, IncAGPS Advanced Global Positioning SystemAGPS Ameron Global Product SupportAGPS Attitude Global Positioning SystemAGPS Assisted Gps . Baldwin, P. (1991). Higher education: Quality and diversity in the1990s (Policy Statement). Canberra: AGPS. Bok, D. (1982). Beyond the ivory tower ivory towern.A place or attitude of retreat, especially preoccupation with lofty, remote, or intellectual considerations rather than practical everyday life. : Social responsibilities ofthe modern university. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press The Harvard University Press is a publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. It was established on January 13, 1913. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. . Bourke, P. (1986). Quality measures in universities. Belconnen,ACT: Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission. Bourke, P. (1997). Evaluating university research: The BritishResearch Assessment Exercise and Australian practice (National Board ofEmployment, Education and Training Commissioned Report No. 56).Canberra: AGPS. Bourke, P. & Butler, L. (1996). Standard issues in a nationalbibliometric database: The Australian case. Scientometrics, 35, 199-207 Cave, M., Hanney, S., & Kogan M. (1991). The use of performanceindicators in higher education: A critical analysis of developingpractice (2nd ed.). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Dawkins, J. (1988). Higher education: A policy statement. Canberra:AGPS. Fallon, D. (1980). The German university: A heroic ideal inconflict with the modern world. Boulder, CO: Colorado AssociatedUniversity. Grigg, L. (1996). Impact of Australian science. Canberra:Australian Academy of Science The Australian Academy of Science (AAS) was founded in 1954 by Australian Fellows of the Royal Society of London. The first president was Sir Mark Oliphant. The Academy is modeled after the Royal Society and operates under a Royal Charter; as such it is an independent body, but . Menzies, R.G. (1939). The place of a university in the moderncommunity. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Ramsden, P. (1991). A performance indicator of teaching quality inhigher education: The course experience questionnaire. Studies in HigherEducation, 16, 129-150. Review of Higher Education Financing and Policy (R. West, Chair).(1998). Learning for life: Final report. Canberra: Department ofEmployment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Steering Committee for Efficiency Studies in Universities (Sir AlexJarratt Sir Alexander Jarratt CB (born 19 January, 1924) is a British businessman and former senior civil servant. He was the fifth Chancellor of Birmingham University.Sir Alex attended the Royal Liberty Grammar School in Essex. , Chair). (1998). Report. London: Committee of Vice-Chancellorsand Principals of Universities of the United Kingdom. Trow, M. (1974). Problems in the transition from elite to masshigher education. In Politics for Higher Education (pp.70-71). Paris:OECD. Emeritus e��mer��i��tus?adj.Retired but retaining an honorary title corresponding to that held immediately before retirement: a professor emeritus.n. pl. Professor David Penington, AC, is a former Vice-Chancellorof the University of Melbourne AsiaWeek is now discontinued. Comments:In 2006, Times Higher Education Supplement ranked the University of Melbourne 22nd in the world. Because of the drop in ranking, University of Melbourne is currently behind four Asian universities - Beijing University, . He can be contacted at Level 4, 111Collins Street, Melbourne Collins Street is a major street in the Melbourne central business district and runs approximately east to west.It is notable as Melbourne's best known street, with some of the country's finest Victorian era buildings. , Victoria 3000.