Literacy learning for Indigenous students: setting a research agenda.

Literacy learning for Indigenous students: setting a research agenda. Introduction Literacy for Aboriginal learners has been a significant part of theeducation agenda in Australia, particularly since the implementation ofthe first mandatory Aboriginal Education Policy in Australia by the NewSouth Wales New South Wales,state (1991 pop. 5,164,549), 309,443 sq mi (801,457 sq km), SE Australia. It is bounded on the E by the Pacific Ocean. Sydney is the capital. The other principal urban centers are Newcastle, Wagga Wagga, Lismore, Wollongong, and Broken Hill. Government in 1982. Despite considerable expenditure andresearch programs, there have been minimal improvements in literacylearning outcomes for Aboriginal learners (Masters & Forster 1997,Freebody et al 1995). We recognise that Australia's Indigenouscommunities comprise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Torres Strait(tŏr`ĭz, –rĭs), channel, c.95 mi (153 km) wide, between New Guinea and Cape York Peninsula of Australia. It connects the Arafura and Coral seas. Islander peoples.However, the focus for our research has been centred on Aboriginalstudents and communities in outer regional locations. The key focus for our research has been to explore the role ofcultural subtleties in communication including aspects of Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal cultures, and the mismatches in meaning that frequentlyoccur in cultural contact or intercultural situations. Theseintercultural interactions impact on Aboriginal learners in ways thatinhibit their access to equitable education outcomes. This is one of thekey motivations behind our partnership of one Aboriginal and onenon-Aboriginal researcher working together in the area of StandardAustralian English (SAE saeabbr (BRIT) (= stamped addressed envelope) → sobre con las propias se?as de uno y con sello ) literacy for young Aboriginal learners. Thepartnership enables our mutual interests in Aboriginal Education andLiteracy, and our strong beliefs that data analysis can be strengthenedwhen both cultural perspectives are embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. in the interpretation ofdata, to be put into practice. The first part of our paper presents a brief overview of ourresearch, national research projects and Aboriginal Education policy andstatements. This overview will put the type of research and its aims andapplications in context, providing a background for the subsequentsections of our discussion. Researching Aboriginal education As mentioned earlier our research has been located in outerregional areas and schools where, typically, Aboriginal studentscomprise a minority classroom group. Our research projects include: Simpson & Clancy Research projects Nanima research project. Nanima is Wiradjuri language Wiradjuri (many other spellings; see Wiradjuri) is a Pama-Nyungan language of the Wiradhuric subgroup. It was the traditional language of the Wiradhuri people of Australia, but is no longer in general use. meaning`something that is lost'. Wiradjuri people are AboriginalAustralians who have lived and live in areas of southern and western NewSouth Wales. This project investigated the context of the pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. literacy relationships conducive to successful literacy acquisition byyoung Aboriginal learners. The focus was on the coping strategies The German Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney defined four so-called coping strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy individuals, the others describing neurotic states. andbehaviours of Aboriginal learners in classroom situations (Simpson1998). Baiyai (Wiradjuri language meaning `meeting place of twoparties') researchers observed Aboriginal students in classroomcontexts, focusing on interactions that might otherwise pass unnoticedin busy classrooms. These were analysed and interpreted in a way thatenabled the research group to construct a picture of classroom exchangesthat were causing difficulties for Aboriginal students and their teacher(Munns, Simpson & Clancy 1999, Munns, Simpson, Connelly, &Townsend 1999). Narang Guudha (Wiradjuri language meaning `little child')research explores why young Aboriginal learners, in urban/rural townsettings (now referred to as inner and outer regional settings) are theones who are at greatest risk of not achieving adequate literacy skills.This is despite their enthusiasm and readiness to begin formal educationsimilar to any other group of children (Simpson & Clancy 2001a,2001b). Part of the Narang Guudha project considers the six elements ofThe National Indigenous English Literacy & Numeracy numeracyMathematical literacy Neurology The ability to understand mathematical concepts, perform calculations and interpret and use statistical information. Cf Acalculia. Strategy2000-2004 (Commonwealth of Australia Commonwealth of Australia:see Australia. , 1999). Clearly, our research is embedded in the broader Australian contextand as such is informed by a range of national research projects(government initiated and funded) and Aboriginal Education Policies inthe area of literacy learning for Indigenous students. Indeed it is thesynthesis of local, national and theoretical perspectives that hasresulted in raising our consciousness about a range of issues (Straw& Cook 1990), and has provided a basis for further researchprojects. Aboriginal Education Policies Federal and State Governments have invested considerable capitalinto developing reports and policies on literacy and Aboriginaleducation. We first present an overview of the Government Reports (seeTable 1) and second a brief description of major national researchreports on Aboriginal Education. The policies and reports selected fordiscussion provide a valuable resource for understanding the changingand developing nature of Indigenous education. National Indigenous Research Reports A series of Reports have likewise been prepared to inform thedevelopment of policies and strategies in the area of AboriginalEducation. The list provided below is a summary of some of the majorreports commissioned since 1988. Report of the Aboriginal Education Policy Task Force (1988) The Task Force report is the first stage in the development of anational policy on Aboriginal education. It drew on a number of existingdocuments to formulate its recommendations: policy papers from the NAEC See Novell certification. (National Aboriginal Education Council), two reports by the House ofRepresentatives Standing committee on Aboriginal Education and otherreports from government agencies. The report identifies the need for anational Aboriginal Education policy and makes a number ofrecommendations relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accprimary and secondary education and access,curriculum and teaching strategies. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education in the Early Years.Project Paper No. 4 Compulsory Years of Schooling Project (1992) This paper provides advice on necessary action in the criticalearly years of school which impact on the future academic and lifeoutcomes of Indigenous students. The recommendations suggest ways inwhich the cycle of poor health, poor welfare, poor psychologicaldevelopment and low educational outcomes can be addressed. Community Literacy Practices and Schooling: Towards EffectiveSupport for Students (1997) This project explored differences in the language and literacypractices of schools, families and community groups. In particular, itexamined matches and mismatches between the discourse practices of homeand school and the impact that any differences have on students'school success. Mapping Literacy Achievement--Results of the 1996 National SchoolEnglish Literacy Survey (1997) The report presents the outcomes of a comprehensive survey of theliteracy achievements of Year 3 and Year 5 students in Australianschools, including a Special Indigenous Sample of 800 students. Theperformance of the Special Indigenous Sample was at a lower level thanthe Main Sample in the three strands of the national English profileframework that were assessed in the survey. Enhancing English Literacy Skills in Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Students--A Review of the Literature and Case Studies inPrimary Schools (1998) This report draws together theory and practical experience toprovide a comprehensive picture of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderprimary school education. It provides a review of the literaturerelating to contexts of learning, government policies and reports andEnglish literacy development. In addition a series of diverse casestudies in which teachers describe strategies that have improved theperformance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students in theareas of reading, writing, speaking, viewing and listening are included. Katu Kalpu: Report on the Inquiry into the Effectiveness ofEducation and Training Programs for Indigenous Australians Indigenous Australians are descendants of the first known human inhabitants of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. The term includes both the Torres Strait Islanders and the Aboriginal People, who together make up about 2.5% of Australia's population. (March 2000) Provides an overview of a Senate Committee inquiry into theeffectiveness of education and training programs for IndigenousAustralians over the past ten years. The Committee received 43submissions from all states and territories and visited schools andother educational institutions, and held formal hearings and less formaldiscussions with a range of people connected with Indigenous education. OECD OECD:see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care PolicyAustralian Background Report (2000) Twelve countries around the world have participated in this review,which is designed to provide decision makers with information andanalysis to aid in developing policy in the area of early childhoodeducation and care. There is a strong focus on the Australian context,the area of early childhood, as well as policy concerns and approaches. National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education--Emerging Themes(2000),Education Access (2000), Recommendations (2000) This inquiry was initiated by the Human Rights and EqualOpportunity Commission The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) is a national independent statutory body of the Australian Government. It has the responsibility for investigating alleged infringements under Australia’s anti-discrimination legislation. (HREOC HREOC Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (Australia)) in February 1999. This followed theCommission's 1998 Bush Talks consultations, in which it wasrevealed that access to education of an appropriate standard and qualitywas a significant concern in rural and remote areas. The reportconsidered the availability and accessibility of both primary andsecondary schooling, and the quality of educational services, includingtechnology support services support servicesPsychology Non-health care-related ancillary services–eg, transportation, financial aid, support groups, homemaker services, respite services, and other services and whether the education available tochildren with disabilities, Indigenous children and children fromdiverse cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds complies withtheir human rights. What Works? Explorations in Improving Outcomes for IndigenousStudents (2000) This report is a significant achievement in Australian education.It summarises what has been learnt from one of the largest Indigenouseducational exercises ever undertaken across Australia, and is withoutprecedent in terms of scope and scale. The IESIP IESIP Indigenous Education Strategic Initiatives Program (Australia)(Indigenous EducationStrategic Initiatives Program) Strategic Results Project valued andchallenged the professional capabilities of educators. It also valueddiversity, while being highly ambitious in wanting to show acceleratedlearning for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. A revisedand much shortened version What Has Worked (and will again) (2000) hasbeen prepared specifically as food for thought for, and consequentaction by, teachers and trainers to improve education and trainingoutcomes for Indigenous students. Achieving Educational Equality for Australia's Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander Peoples--Discussion Paper (2000) This document contains a statement of principles and standards foreducational infrastructure and service delivery, a model for moreculturally inclusive and educationally effective schools, and aframework for developing more efficient and effective cross-portfoliomechanisms. Australian Literacies Informing National Policy on LiteracyEducation (2001) This report considers the place of literacy in the wider Australiancontext, identifies areas that should be included in a National Policyon literacy and includes literacy learners from diverse backgrounds, andhow literacy is taught in schools from early years through topost-schooling. It also provides examples of state-based Australianprograms. The government reports and policies introduced above are extensiveand generally provide `big picture' information rather than smallerdetail. However, they all highlight the fact that Aboriginal childrenare having difficulties in education and often struggle to developliteracy levels that are equal to those of the rest of the Australianpopulation (Department of Employment Education and Training 1995,Masters & Forster 1997). Although recommendations are often madebased on local input, the information given is of a general nature withfew specifics or details on how to develop the cultural understandingsrequired to implement them in an appropriate way that is meaningful andhelpful to Aboriginal learners. Contexts of Aboriginal education in Australia Education in Australia is primarily regulated by the individual state governments. Generally education in Australia follows the three-tier model which includes Primary education (Primary Schools), followed by Secondary education (Secondary Schools / High Schools) and Tertiary In addition to the macro contexts considered by national researchprojects and reports and represented in education policies, it iscrucial to understand the local contexts of Aboriginal children--place,population, density--and the diverse, and yet shared, nature of theirexperiences in those contexts. This section of our paper explores someof these issues in order to inform the subsequent section. In thatsection we present a number of case studies and scenarios, drawn fromour research to highlight ways of responding to, and reconsidering,classroom practice and interaction. Population statistics and categories According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the 1996 National Census data (ABS (Automatic Backup System) See backup program. 1996) the majorityof Australia's Indigenous populations reside in NSW NSWNew South WalesNoun 1. NSW - the agency that provides units to conduct unconventional and counter-guerilla warfareNaval Special Warfare and Queensland,with the largest concentrations in major cities and inner and outerregional areas. However, in more remote areas (e.g. Northern Territory,north-western Western Australia Western Australia,state (1991 pop. 1,409,965), 975,920 sq mi (2,527,633 sq km), Australia, comprising the entire western part of the continent. It is bounded on the N, W, and S by the Indian Ocean. Perth is the capital. and Cape York Peninsula Cape York Peninsula,280 mi (451 km) long, N Queensland, Australia, between the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Coral Sea. It is largely tropical jungle and sparsely populated. The Northern Peninsula Aboriginal Reserve is there. Weipa (1991 pop. 2,510) is the largest town. ), the Indigenouspopulation comprises 40% of the total population; in more denselypopulated pop��u��late?tr.v. pop��u��lat��ed, pop��u��lat��ing, pop��u��lates1. To supply with inhabitants, as by colonization; people.2. urban centres Indigenous representation decreases to less than2%. This means that in remote areas of Australia the Indigenouspopulation is more visible, and consequently these areas have tended toattract more of the education research and funding. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] According to the 1996 census (ABS 1996) 27% of Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander people lived in towns and cities of more than100,000 people and approximately 32% lived in regional areas. Themajority of Indigenous Australians lived in centres with populationsgreater than 1,000 and 41% lived in centres with populations between1,000 and 100,000 people. The exception is the Northern Territory: 65%of Indigenous Australians lived in regional areas; 26% in localitieswith a total population of between 200 and 999; and 39% in communitiesof less than 200 people (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2000). Interestingly, much of the research in the area of Indigenouseducation has focused on areas outside the main population areas with afocus on the remote and very remote areas. Batten bat��ten?1?v. bat��tened, bat��ten��ing, bat��tensv.intr.1. To become fat.2. et al (1998) echo thisfinding with their comment that `more is written in the literature aboutthe schooling of Aboriginal children in remote situations than in urbansettings, but most Indigenous people do live in an urbanenvironment' (p. 3). Similarly, Dunn suggests that `while literacyresearch in minority communities is common in other countries, researchconcerning urban/rural town Aboriginal people in Australia issparse' (1999, p. 103). Thus we would support a far greaterresearch and policy focus on research sites that reflect the settingsand realities for the Indigenous population, ie towns and outer regionalareas. Currently a range of labels is used to describe geographicalsettings such as rural, bush, remote, regional, urban. Unfortunately alack of consistency in the use of these labels complicates ouridentification and reference to the contexts of Indigenous populations.The differences and anomalies that arise in the terminology used by thewider community, researchers, and government agencies and departmentsmake it difficult to formulate a research focus that is clearlyunderstood by all stakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. and interested persons. The AustralianBureau of Statistics has recognised these difficulties and is in theprocess of articulating a clear set of guidelines to define thedifferent geographical locations within Australia, particularly thosethat refer to the inner and outer regional dichotomy di��chot��o��my?n. pl. di��chot��o��mies1. Division into two usually contradictory parts or opinions: "the dichotomy of the one and the many"Louis Auchincloss. . Necessarily theconventions and consistency of such a framework can only benefitplanning, policy and research in the area of Aboriginal Education. Diversity and complexity of Indigenous communities Indigenous people not only live across very different geographicalsettings as outlined above, but also experience a range of differentlifestyles within those communities. The literature, however, reliesheavily on the umbrella term A term used to cover a broad category of functions rather than one specific item. In many cases, a term is so catchy that it tends to be used for technologies that are a stretch from the original concept. See middleware and virtualization. `Aboriginal' when documentinginformation about these communities, and fails to recognise thesedifferences within the Aboriginal communities. Aboriginal people areliving a range of lifestyles, including Traditional, Transitional, andContemporary, in communities such as inner city, outer city,resettlement Re`set´tle`mentn. 1. Act of settling again, or state of being settled again; as, the resettlementof lees s>.The resettlementof my discomposed soul.- Norris. , isolated, home, homeland, remote and island. Each of thesehas its history, context and particular needs. These kinds ofdifferences certainly provide some explanation as to why the genericprojected outcomes and recommendations from policies and programs,outlined in the earlier section, are not necessarily appropriate for allIndigenous communities, and why some have worked well in somecommunities and failed in others. Extending awareness and understandingof the complex, and often delicate, nature of the social and culturalissues at play within and between these communities, is critical ifAboriginal learners are to achieve equitable educational outcomes. It isthis kind of detail that can add richness and depth to researchprojects, which can in turn provide for a more targeted approach topolicy making and funding. Information about the diversity between and within Aboriginalcommunities, aimed at providing a clear understanding of the labelsused, and the cultural and social complexities embedded within them, isnot easily accessible or evident to outsiders. Little has been writtenabout them, and the only way of really accessing this information isthrough being an `insider', or talking and consulting with an`insider'. Research contexts: cooperation and partnership Our research partnership is an example of a situation whereAboriginal and non-Aboriginal colleagues have equal status andresponsibility in the project, and through collaboration are able toprovide insights that in the past have not always been active orevident. The dynamic nature of such a partnership enables cultural`insiders' and `outsiders' (Brayboy & Deyhle 2000) tointerpret data using a `perspectives' approach. If the research in Aboriginal Education is to be effective itrequires this kind of partnership approach, where power is distributedequitably, and where research is conducted with Aboriginal researchersand communities--not to and about them. In this way there can be`research insiders' who will add the cultural dimensions Cultural dimensions are the mostly psychological dimensions, or value constructs, which can be used to describe a specific culture. These are often used in Intercultural communication-/Cross-cultural communication-based research.See also: Edward T. andunderstandings that non-Aboriginal researchers often miss. Qualitativemethodologies, such as a social interactionist approach as suggested byWoods (1983), enable a close focus on cultural nuances (see below). Suchan approach `... concentrates on the small-scale debate of interpersonalrelationships, what people do, and how they react to each other, thepatterning of behaviours, the ebb and flow the alternate ebb and flood of the tide; often used figuratively.See also: Ebb of everyday life ... [taking]nothing for granted about the importance of events, for that is decidedby the people under study; this is their world' (Woods, 1983, p.xi). Findings from such research can be effectively reported throughstories which help to make the information more accessible and easilyunderstood by all stakeholders, including Indigenous participants andcommunities, educators, and the general public. Woods suggests that inthis way mutual understandings can be developed, and programs thatprovide benefits for all learners can be implemented more efficientlyand effectively. Some of the most interesting responses to the work inNanima, Baiyai and Narang Guudah, have been those from people within theAboriginal community. They comment that the researchers have articulatedwhat is really happening, which is something they have not previouslybeen able to put into words in order to inform educators about theirchildren's difficulties in `being successful' at school. The kind of research suggested here requires time to build up trustwithin the Aboriginal community to observe and to talk openly andfreely. Researching in cross-cultural settings can be problematic; anoutsider's past experiences will not have equipped them to makesense of events in the same way that an insider's would.Furthermore, as Teagarden et al indicated, `[n]o one researcher can bean insider in multiple cultures' (1995, p. 1283). The use ofinsider and outsider partnerships or teams (Easterby-Smith & Malina1999) has therefore been suggested in several reports (Bartunek &Louis 1996, Boyacigiller & Adler 1991, Morey & Luthans 1985).These partnerships need to be founded on mutual trust and respect, withan equal distribution of power and responsibility. It can take manyyears to build up such a relationship, so it makes good sense whenresearchers are also community `insiders' having access to thecultural mores of the participants. As mentioned above, our research partnership contains both an`insider' and `outsider' (Bartunek and Louis, 1996). Onemember of the research team is an educator and researcher as well as acultural `insider' within the Aboriginal community. She hasknowledge of the community structure, and is able to use and interpretthe language, which minimises the difficulties of access and rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. ,helping to reduce the gap between the Aboriginal community and educatorsand researchers. On the other hand, the `outsider' researcherprovides expertise from literacy, education and research perspectives,complementing the `insider' researcher. She is able to maintain acritical and analytical approach with her `outsider critical eye'and questioning practices. This allows the researchers to bring anotherperspective to the research that one perspective alone would notnecessarily guarantee (Pugh & Brooks 2000). The goal of this partnership is to endeavour to bring togetherAboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities, an Aboriginal researcher,non-Aboriginal researcher and school education as indicated in Figure 2,to assist in linking these aspects in a way that can provide input intofilling the missing piece. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Case studies and scenarios relating to research and classroompractice The final section of our paper identifies a number of key languageand literacy issues of relevance to developing a research agenda forAboriginal Education and classroom practice. The key issues includeAboriginal English, early Aboriginal Literacy and cultural subtleties.The discussion presented below draws upon our research collaboration. Understanding the culture of Aboriginal children Negotiating a pathway For Aboriginal children, who are in the process of moving fromtheir home culture into the school culture for the first time, we prefernot to use the term `transition', which can imply a one way journeytowards something better. We use it in tandem Adv. 1. in tandem - one behind the other; "ride tandem on a bicycle built for two"; "riding horses down the path in tandem"tandem with the term `firestick' period to highlight the way in which Aboriginal culture isnot something to be left behind during the process of moving from thehome culture to the school culture, but an integral part of it. (`Firestick' in traditional Aboriginal culture is a stick that is keptalight to ensure the availability of fire when needed.) Although themove to school is a challenge for all young children, this `firestick' period is particularly difficult for young Aboriginallearners, who need to adjust to an extra range and layer of differentexperiences, demands and expectations relating to their cultural,language and social skills. If Aboriginal children are to succeed in theschool context they need to know that it is safe and acceptable to movebackwards and forwards between the cultures of home and school.Additionally educators need to be informed about ways in which they cansupport Aboriginal children in valuing their own culture while they arealso developing a `sociocultural identity kit' for their newsetting. Such a `kit' `is acquired through scaffolding and socialinteraction with people who have already mastered this way of being andlearning with the social and cultural community' (Hill 1997, p.271), and it will enable Aboriginal children to be full participants intheir new social network. Such terminology can be applicable to childrenfrom many cultural groups where the `fire stick' period equateswith the time needed for them to learn how to navigate between theirhome and school cultures (Simpson & Clancy 2001b). Shame In collaboration with her Aboriginal community, the Aboriginalresearcher describes shame as a unique cultural response experienced bymany Aboriginal people. It is best described in Western culture as acuteembarrassment. It is particularly apparent when Aboriginal people arepublicly made the centre of attention, in either positive or negativesituations. Giving an incorrect or inappropriate answer can cause manyAboriginal children to feel `shame'. It can also occur when theyare unable to interpret jargon/language used by non-Indigenous people(see Groome 1995, p. 72). Aboriginal children often learn how to avoidbeing `shamed'. This is achieved by not answering, not offeringtheir work to be marked, waiting for others to begin and then followingor, in some cases, by reacting in ways that are not expected by theteacher. An example of how classroom misinterpretations andmisunderstandings can have a profound impact upon Aboriginal learnersoccurred when Jenny, a young Aboriginal girl, had completed her work andshowed it to her teacher who was very pleased with Jenny's efforts.The teacher wanted to praise Jenny and also wanted to model `good'work to the rest of the class. As a result the teacher gained theattention of the whole class and told Jenny to hold her work up to showto the class. Jenny stood still, her work held down at her side. Afterencouraging Jenny to show her work the teacher finally took the work outof Jenny's hand, held it up, and made positive comments to theclass. Jenny was `shamed': she stood hanging her head and when herwork was given back to her she sheepishly returned to her seat. In this incident the teacher intended to praise Jenny and waspuzzled at Jenny's reactions. However, Jenny's interpretationof events was that she was being `shamed' and she would try toavoid a similar situation in the future. Aboriginal English Over the generations, Aboriginal speakers have used a combinationof Aboriginal English (AE) and Standard Australian English (SAE) with anAboriginal accent. It has been noted above, that throughout AustraliaAboriginal people live a range of lifestyles; they also speak a widerange of languages, and within this diversity the Aboriginal Englishthey speak ranges from heavy to light. Many Aboriginal languages do not have f, v or th sounds, sospeakers of the heavier varieties of AE often substitute these sounds inEnglish words for other consonants This is a list of all consonants, ordered by place and manner of articulation. Ordered by place of articulationLabial consonantsBilabial consonants bilabial click [ʘ] . The most common substitutions arethese: In Aboriginal English you might hear the following: AE: Dat pulla der im run real past and get d ting ting?n.A single light metallic sound, as of a small bell.intr.v. tinged , ting��ing, tingsTo give forth a light metallic sound. off dat dorg oberder. SAE: `That fellow (fulla) there he ran real fast and got the thingoff that dog over there.' Teachers may find it difficult to understand what Aboriginalchildren are saying and may interpret Aboriginal English as a languagedeficit or speech impediment speech impedimentn → defecto del hablaspeech impedimentn → d��faut m d'��locutionspeech impedimentspeech n , requiring intervention and/or remediation.Because many varieties of AE have no `h' at the beginning of a wordan Aboriginal child might say `im ungry' or `enry's at'which in SAE would be articulated as `he's hungry' and`Henry's hat'. This strong focus on the sound `h' canlead to over correction by the child, sometimes resulting in aninappropriate placement of the sound. An example occurred when Ken waslooking through a book and talking about the pictures, `Look! 'im'ungry. Now 'e found the happle!' Curriculum content Often the selection of content of classroom activities is based onassumptions about prior knowledge that children bring to school withthem. For example, traditional English nursery rhymes nursery rhymes,verses, generally brief and usually anonymous, for children. The best-known examples are in English and date mostly from the 17th cent. A popular type of rhyme is used in "counting-out" games, e.g., "Eenie, meenie, minie, mo. regularly play animportant role in the kindergarten kindergarten[Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be classroom. In the following incident,taken from the Narang Guudha research, Alice's teacher comments onAlice's knowledge of nursery rhymes: Alice's English is beautiful, she speaks very clearly, she seems quite intelligent at the moment and I think that's because she had done wonderful things at home--she knows her nursery rhymes. At the same time this teacher is also aware that there areAboriginal rhymes: `Alice ... also knows the Aboriginal ones as well andthe meaning of the words.' This indicates that Alice is beginningto navigate a pathway for herself between the two cultures and herteacher appreciates the value of this navigation; unfortunately, this isnot always the case. Such navigation was proving to be considerably moredifficult for Dean, who identified strongly as being Aboriginal. Whenworking with the rhyme rhymeor rime,the most prominent of the literary artifices used in versification. Although it was used in ancient East Asian poetry, rhyme was practically unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Humpty Dumpty Humpty Dumptyarbitrarily gives his own meanings to words, and tolerates no objections. [Br. Lit.: Lewis Carroll Through the Looking-Glass]See : ArroganceHumpty Dumpty , which was being used as a focus onthe letter `h', he was having all sorts of problems. He had noconcept that Humpty Dumpty was an egg, nor could he make the `h'sound. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , the whole activity had very little meaning forhim, other than his knowledge that he needed to colour in a picture andkeep his work neat. Cultural responsibilities, assumptions, expectations and subtleties Food One of the areas that creates particular difficulties for youngchildren is that of different cultural practices relating to food. Forexample, Dean had shared all his food at morning tea time. At lunchtime,because he had nothing left, he simply walked around and helped himselfto food from the other children's lunches. This upset the otherchildren, who began to accuse ac��cuse?v. ac��cused, ac��cus��ing, ac��cus��esv.tr.1. To charge with a shortcoming or error.2. To charge formally with a wrongdoing.v.intr. him of `stealing' their food. Deancould not understand why he was in trouble. For Aboriginal children, all food is for sharing. If they havefood, others are welcome to have some, or if someone else has food,Aboriginal children expect to be able to help themselves. Culturalpractices such as these do conflict seriously with the conventionalpractices related to food in the mainstream culture, and can causeconflicts with school and other authorities. This, especially whenlinked to other misunderstandings, can create tensions for the child andthe educator and can result in a build up of resentment. Time Issues relating to time can also prove to be problematic for youngAboriginal learners. For example, when Dean's class were working ingroups, his group were using the computers. Initially, Dean struggled toget his program working and when it finally worked he was delighted withhimself. Just at that moment the teacher asked the children to move ontothe next group activity. Dean ignored the request, continuing with thecomputer task. The teacher continued to make the request, eventuallybecoming insistent in��sis��tent?adj.1. Firm in asserting a demand or an opinion; unyielding.2. Demanding attention or a response: insistent hunger.3. . Dean was upset, demonstrated his discontent bydeliberately knocking over a pile of books and refused to take part inany further activities. Concepts relating to time can often confuse Aboriginal children. Inmany Aboriginal home contexts, when they are asked to finish anactivity, it is expected that they will finish the task, but not thatthey will stop immediately, which is often the expectation withinclassrooms. Dean was only a short way through his computer task andexpected he would be able to complete it. He couldn't understandwhy he had to stop when he hadn't actually finished the task, andaccordingly he became frustrated frus��trate?tr.v. frus��trat��ed, frus��trat��ing, frus��trates1. a. To prevent from accomplishing a purpose or fulfilling a desire; thwart: and angry. The teacher was not aware ofthis construction of time and became impatient with Dean when he wouldnot do as he was asked. In the examples above, we have seen some of the difficulties facedby Aboriginal learners when their teachers do not have an awareness ofAboriginal language and culture. On the other hand, we saw that whenAlice's teacher was able to value learning in both cultures Alicewas assisted in navigating a pathway for herself between the cultures.We believe that classroom teachers can support and scaffold scaffoldTemporary platform used to elevate and support workers and materials during work on a structure or machine. It consists of one or more wooden planks and is supported by either a timber or a tubular steel or aluminum frame; bamboo is used in parts of Asia. Aboriginallearners when they: * have access to `insider' cultural information * recognise that the language difficulties Aboriginal childrenexperience often relate to cultural misunderstanding on the part of boththe educator and the child rather than to limitations in thechild's academic ability. Teachers can't do this alone. If Aboriginal children are tohave equal access to education there needs to be systemic support fortrainee teachers in pre-service education courses, and professionaldevelopment for practising teachers. Both pre-service and professionaldevelopment courses need to provide teachers with an understanding ofAboriginal culture and language. Such courses should also aim to raiseteachers' awareness of the fact that Aboriginal parents do careabout their children's education, and that their seeming reluctanceto participate in school initiatives is more about their priormarginalisation Noun 1. marginalisation - the social process of becoming or being made marginal (especially as a group within the larger society); "the marginalization of the underclass"; "the marginalization of literature"marginalization within education systems than about disinterest dis��in��ter��est?n.1. Freedom from selfish bias or self-interest; impartiality.2. Lack of interest; indifference.tr.v.To divest of interest.Noun 1. in theirchildren's education. Finally, we suggest that teachers engage inongoing classroom action research where they work with Aboriginalstudents and their communities to bring about change in attitudes andunderstanding.Table 1: Australian Government Policies in Aboriginal EducationPolicy Document OverviewAboriginal This New South Wales policy was designed toEducation Policy provide teachers and associated groups with(1982) a base from which to develop education programs for children. It identified Aboriginal Education as having a dual propose, firstly to enhance the development and learning of Aboriginal students and secondly, to enable all students to have some knowledge, understanding and appreciation of Aborigines and their culture.National Aboriginal This policy statement (commonly referred to asand Torres Strait the AEP) endorsed by all states and territoriesIslander Education outlines the purpose of the policy (respondingPolicy. Joint Policy to Aboriginal needs and aspirations), commonStatement. (1989) goals (educational principles, long-term goals, and intermediate priorities), and arrangements for policy implementation strategic planing, financial monitoring, evaluation and review arrangements.State Aboriginal The central theme of the policy is to promoteEducation Policy educational achievements by Aboriginal students(NSW 1995) in the context of educating all students about Aboriginal Australia. This policy statement provides a comprehensive set of outcomes, as well as performance strategies to guide all Department of School Education staff, schools, students and their communities in achieving the overall goals for Aboriginal education.Literacy for All: The Commonwealth's literacy and numeracyThe Challenge for policies are directed towards strengthening theAustralian Schools. literacy and numeracy achievements of allCommonwealth Australian school children.Literacy Policies forAustralian Schools(1998)The Adelaide The Ministerial Council on Education,Declaration on Employment, Training and Youth Affairs agreedNational Goals for to establish a Working Group to undertake workSchooling in the relating to educational equality, enhancingTwenty-First performance and monitoring frameworks, andCentury (1999) providing advice to the Commonwealth on National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy and the National Indigenous Students' School Attendance Strategy.National Indigenous This document extends across preschool andEnglish Literacy and school systems. Education providers areNumeracy Strategy encouraged to adopt approaches to teaching that2000-2004 (2000) have been shown to make a real difference for Indigenous students. There are extensive resources available for the education of all Australian children through recurrent funding. This strategy heightens awareness of Indigenous literacy and numeracy issues and seeks to accelerate implementation of successful teaching practices.Aboriginal English Standard Australian Example English p or b F past - fast pulla - fulla (fellow) b or p v [h]ab - have ober - over t or d th dat - that ting - thing References: Government reports and policies Batten, M., Frigo, T., Hughes, P. & McNamara, N. 1998,Enhancing English Literacy Skills in Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Students ((Research Monograph No. 54) A Review of theLiterature and Case Studies in Primary Schools, ACER Press, Melbourne. Commonwealth of Australia 1999, National Indigenous EnglishLiteracy and Numeracy Strategy 2000-2004, Commonwealth of Australia,Canberra. Commonwealth Government, 2000, Katu Kalpa Kal´pan. 1. (Hind. Myth.) One of the Brahmanic eons, a period of 4,320,000,000 years. At the end of each Kalpa the world is annihilated. : Report on theInquiry into the Effectiveness of Education and Training Programs forIndigenous Australians, Australian Government Printing Office, Canberra. Commonwealth Government of Australia This article describes the federal government of Australia. See Australian governments for other jurisdictions. For a description of politics and political institutions, see Politics of Australia. , 2000, OECD Thematic Review ofEarly Childhood Education and Care Policy Australian Background Report,Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Department of Employment Education and Training 1989, NationalAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Policy Commonwealth ofAustralia, Canberra. Department of Employment Education Training and Youth Affairs 1997,Community Literacy Practices and Schooling: Towards Effective Supportfor Students, Department of Employment, Education, Training and YouthAffairs, Canberra. Department of Education Training and Youth Affairs 1998, Literacyfor All: The Challenge for Australian Schools. Commonwealth LiteracyPolicies for Australian Schools, Australian Government PublishingService, Canberra. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 2000, NationalInquiry into Rural and Remote Education--Education Access, Human Rightsand Equal Opportunity Commission, Sydney. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 2000, NationalInquiry into Rural and Remote Education--Emerging Themes, Human Rightsand Equal Opportunity Commission, Sydney. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 2000, NationalInquiry into Rural and Remote Education--Recommendations, Human Rightsand Equal Opportunity Commission, Sydney. Lo Bianco, J. & Freebody, P. 2001, Australian LiteraciesInforming National Policy on Literacy Education, Language Australia,Melbourne. Masters, G. & Forster, M. 1997, Mapping Literacy Achievement:Results of the 1996 National School English Literacy Survey, DEETYA,Canberra. Ministerial Council on Education Employment, Training and YouthAffairs, 1999, The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schoolingin the Twenty-First Century, MCEETYA MCEETYA Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (Council of Australian Commonwealth, State and Territory Ministers)Secretariat, Melbourne. Ministerial Council on Education Employment, Training and YouthAffairs 2000, Achieving Educational Equality for Australia'sAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples--Discussion Paper, MCEETYASecretariat, Melbourne. National Board of Employment Education and Training Schools Council1992, `Developing Flexible Strategies in the Early Years of Schooling:Purposes and Possibilities', Compulsory Years of Schooling Project.The Early Years of Schooling, Australian Government Printing Service,Canberra. NSW Department of Education 1982, Aboriginal Education Policy, NSWDepartment of Education, Sydney. References Australian Bureau of Statistics 1996, Australia's NationalPopulation Census, Canberra Australian Bureau of Statistics 2000, Information Paper: ABS Viewson Remoteness, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Bartunek, J.M. & Louis, M.R. 1996, Insider/outsider TeamResearch, Sage, London. Boyacilliger, N.A. & Adler, N.J. 1991, `The parochial pa��ro��chi��al?adj.1. Of, relating to, supported by, or located in a parish.2. Of or relating to parochial schools.3. dinosaur dinosaur(dī`nəsôr)[Gr., = terrible lizard], extinct land reptile of the Mesozoic era. The dinosaurs, which were egg-laying animals, ranged in length from 2 1-2 ft (91 cm) to about 127 ft (39 m). :Organisational science in a global context', Academy of ManagementReview, vol. 16, pp. 262-290. Brayboy, B.M. & Deyhle, D. 2000, `Insider-outsider: Researchersin American Indian communities', Theory into Practice, vol. 39 no.3, pp. 163-69. Department of Employment Education and Training, 1995, NationalReview of Education for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander People:Final Report, Department of Employment Education & Training,Canberra. Dunn, M. 1999, `Tracking literacy development in an Aboriginalcommunity: Summary of a research project', Australian Journal ofLanguage and Literacy, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 103-119. Easterby-Smith, M. & Malina, D. 1999, `Cross-culturalcollaborative research: Toward reflexivity', Academy of ManagementJournal, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 76-86. Freebody, P., Ludwig C., Gunn, S. 1995, Everyday Literacy PracticesIn and Out of School in Low Socio-economic Urban Communities, GriffithUniversity Griffith University is an Australian public university with five campuses in Queensland between Brisbane and the Gold Coast. In 2007 there were more than 33,000 enrolled students and 3,000 staff. , Brisbane. Groome, H. 1995, Working Purposefully pur��pose��ful?adj.1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician.2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. with Aboriginal children,Social Science Press, Wentworth Falls. Hill, S. 1997, `Perspectives on early literacy and home-schoolconnections', Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, vol. 20,no. 4, pp. 263-279. Masters, G. & Forster, M. 1997, Mapping Literacy Achievement:Results of the 1996 National School English Literacy Survey, DEETYA,Canberra. Morey, N. C. & Luthans, E 1985, `Refining the displacement ofculture and the use of scenes and themes in organizationalstudies', Academy of Management Review, vol. 10, pp. 219-229. Munns, G., Simpson, L. & Clancy, S. 1999, `A Room With AllViews?: The Aboriginal community room as a site and metaphor',Paper presented at the AARE-NZARE Conference, Melbourne. Munns, G., Simpson, L., Connelly, J. & Townsend, T. 1999,`Baiyai--meeting place of two parties: The Pedagogical LiteracyRelationship', Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, vol.22, no. 2, pp. 147-164. Pugh, J. & Brooks, E 2000, `Insider/outsider partnerships in anethnographic eth��nog��ra��phy?n.The branch of anthropology that deals with the scientific description of specific human cultures.eth��nog study of shared governance', Nursing Standard, vol.14, no. 27, p. 43. Simpson, L. & Clancy, S. 2001a, `Context & literacy: YoungAboriginal learners navigating early childhood settings', Journalfor Australian Research in Early Childhood Education, vol. 8, no.1, pp.81-92. Simpson, L. & Clancy, S. 2001b, `Developing classroom discoursewith young Aboriginal literacy learners', Australian Journal ofTeacher Education, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 1-10. Simpson, L., Munns, G. & Clancy, S. 1999, Language Tracks:Aboriginal English and the Classroom, Primary English TeachingAssociation, Marrickville, NSW. Straw, R. & Cook, T. 1990, `Meta-Evaluation', in H.Walberg & G. Haertel (eds.) The International Encyclopedia encyclopedia,compendium of knowledge, either general (attempting to cover all fields) or specialized (aiming to be comprehensive in a particular field).Encyclopedias and Other Reference Books ofEducational Evaluation Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s of an educational process.There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. , Pergamon Press, Oxford. Teagarden, M., Von Glinow, M., Bowen, D., Frayne, C., Nason, S.,Huo, Y., Arias, M., Butler, M., Geringer, J., Kim, N-M, Lowe, K., &Drost, E. 1995, `Toward a theory of comparative management research: Anidiographic id��i��o��graph��ic?adj.Relating to or concerned with discrete or unique facts or events: History is an idiographic discipline, studying events that cannot be repeated.Adj. 1. case study of the best international human resources The fancy word for "people." The human resources department within an organization, years ago known as the "personnel department," manages the administrative aspects of the employees. management project', Academy of Management Journal, vol. 38, pp.1261-1287. Woods, E 1983, Sociology and the School: An InteractionistViewpoint, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Susan Clancy Susan A. Clancy is a psychology researcher at Harvard University in the field of memory, and in October 2005 published Abducted: How People Come to Believe They Were Kidnapped by Aliens. is a literacy education lecturer at Charles SturtUniversity Charles Sturt University (CSU) is an Australian multi-campus university in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. It has campuses at Bathurst, Albury-Wodonga, Dubbo, Orange and Wagga Wagga. . Her research interests are in early childhood and Aboriginalliteracy and the implementation of critical literacy Critical literacy is an instructional approach that advocates the adoption of critical perspectives toward text. Critical literacy encourages readers to actively analyze texts and it offers strategies for uncovering underlying messages. practices in theclassroom. Address: School of Education, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 588,Wagga Wagga Wagga Wagga(wŏg`ə wŏg`ə), city (1991 pop. 40,875), New South Wales, SE Australia, on the Murrumbidgee River. It is the center of an agricultural district with food-processing and rubber-goods plants and foundries. NSW 2678 Email: sclancy@csu.edu.au Lee Simpson lectures in Indigenous Education at the University ofMelbourne AsiaWeek is now discontinued. Comments:In 2006, Times Higher Education Supplement ranked the University of Melbourne 22nd in the world. Because of the drop in ranking, University of Melbourne is currently behind four Asian universities - Beijing University, . She is involved in researching Indigenous Education issueswith a special interest in Aboriginal literacy and educational outcomes. Address: Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne, Parkville,Vic. 3052 Email: l.simpson@unimelb.edu.au