Letting the secret out: successful writing in secondary English.

Letting the secret out: successful writing in secondary English. Introduction In the secondary school, even more than in the primary years,writing performance is of fundamental importance in assessing andevaluating students' overall learning. Yet despite this, theteaching of writing is often not sufficiently foregrounded in muchclassroom practice. At times, this is because teachers assume thatwriting has been taught as part of the primary program, and shouldtherefore require no further attention. At other times, what constitutessuccess in writing is taken for granted Adj. 1. taken for granted - evident without proof or argument; "an axiomatic truth"; "we hold these truths to be self-evident"axiomatic, self-evidentobvious - easily perceived by the senses or grasped by the mind; "obvious errors" , and an assumption is made thatit requires little formal teaching; in this way, skill in writing isseen as in some sense invisible. However, writing is in fact asignificant skill, and even the most able of students continue tobenefit from formal teaching about it. In this paper we report somefindings from a study still in progress investigating key aspects ofwriting development in the secondary school. (1) The study involves using the systemic functional grammar This article needs more context around or a better explanation of technical details to make it more accessible to general readers and technical readers outside the specialty, without removing technical details. There is an inappropriate amount of jargon in this article. (Halliday& Matthiessen Persons named Matthiessen: Francis Otto Matthiessen (1902-1950) U.S. Literary Critic Peter Matthiessen (b. 1927) U.S. writer Ludwig Matthiessen (1830-1906) scientist, notable for Matthiessen's rule (see Electron_mobility#Conceptual_overview). , 2004) and associated genre theory (e.g., Christie,2007; Derewianka, 1990; Macken-Horarik, 2002; Martin & Rose inpress) to collect and analyze texts written in the subjects English 1. English - (Obsolete) The source code for a program, which may be in any language, as opposed to the linkable or executable binary produced from it by a compiler. The idea behind the term is that to a real hacker, a program written in his favourite programming language is ,history and science. The objects of the study are firstly, to describewhat seems to constitute success in writing at different stages ofsecondary schooling, and secondly, to propose pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. interventionsin order to improve the teaching of writing. Here we discuss one aspect of the study, devoted to texts writtenby students in response to literary and media pieces in a Year 10 classin NSW NSWNew South WalesNoun 1. NSW - the agency that provides units to conduct unconventional and counter-guerilla warfareNaval Special Warfare , where students were aged 15 years. Using the systemic functionalgrammar (SFG SFG StanCorp Financial GroupSFG San Francisco Giants (baseball team)SFG Special Forces GroupSFG Sum Frequency GenerationSFG Square Foot GardeningSFG Symmetrical Field Geometry (JBL speaker technology)) and associated genre theory we shall identify the targettext type involved and clarify some of the language resources studentsmust deploy to create such a text type. In particular we shall focus onthematic the��mat��ic?adj.1. Of, relating to, or being a theme: a scene of thematic importance.2. progression and its role in the organisation of successfulsecondary English writing. We shall examine two representativetexts--one deemed very good by the teacher, the other judged ratherunsuccessful--and we shall argue that the successful text has at leasttwo features not found in the second, both capable of being taught. Thefirst of these features involves a strong sense of overall organisation,while the second involves capacity to offer abstract observations aboutthe texts discussed, and later to elaborate on these to develop thediscussion. These two features are in fact interlinked. To take the first of these features, we argue that the strongorganisation of the successful text ensures the reader has a clearunderstanding both of the points made and of the manner in which theseare introduced and related to the text's overall purposes. Suchorganisational strength is revealed to rely heavily upon an orderly orderly/or��der��ly/ (or��der-le) an attendant in a hospital who works under the direction of a nurse. or��der��lyn.An attendant in a hospital. progression of topics and ideas, apparent in the shaping of the stagesof the text and their sequencing, as well as in the constituent CONSTITUENT. He who gives authority to another to act for him. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 893. 2. The constituent is bound with whatever his attorney does by virtue of his authority. sentences and clauses that create those stages and help build theoverall structure. In order to explore this feature more fully we shallintroduce below functional notions of Theme, to do with the organisationof the clause, and related notions of Macro-Theme and Hyper-Theme(Martin & Rose, 2003), to do with the overall organisation of thetext stages. An understanding of these, we shall suggest, can be used toinform the teaching of students about text structure, so that suchmatters are not left to be intuited by students, only some of whommanage to work out what is involved, while others are left as it were'in the dark', unable to deduce de��duce?tr.v. de��duced, de��duc��ing, de��duc��es1. To reach (a conclusion) by reasoning.2. To infer from a general principle; reason deductively: what it is they need to do inorder to succeed in their writing. As for the second of the features wehave identified as part of the successful text, we shall argue that theskilled writer creates abstractions about the matters being discussed,making these a central part of the Macro-Theme, and positioning thewriter to proceed by avoiding mere repetition REPETITION, construction of wills. A repetition takes place when the same testator, by the same testamentary instrument, gives to the same legatee legacies of equal amount and of the same kind; in such case the latter is considered a repetition of the former, and the legatee is entitled of story details, offeringinstead broad interpretive in��ter��pre��tive? also in��ter��pre��ta��tiveadj.Relating to or marked by interpretation; explanatory.in��terpre��tive��ly adv. claims about the texts concerned. Writing in response: Text 1 In a study conducted in NSW some years ago Rothery and hercolleagues (NSW Department of School Education, 1994) identified severalresponse genres, so-called because they involved writers in respondingin some way to literary texts. To judge from the data collected in ourstudy, the response genres endure, so that familiar examples such asbook reviews are still to be found, while other less familiar instanceshave emerged. The changes reflect in part the changing nature of theEnglish curriculum, for since the late 1980s and early 1990s the mediahave assumed a greater importance in the English curriculum, so thatstudents currently study film, videos and television programs as well asliterary pieces. With the advent of these in the English curriculumvarious response genres have emerged whose function is to bring togetherdifferent kinds of texts, verbal and visual, and to offer someevaluative response to these in the light of an overall broad topic ortheme. Thus, the texts we focus on in this paper come from a Year 10unit on a Gothic theme, where the students had been studying both verbaland visual texts, including Mary Mary, the mother of JesusMary,in the Bible, mother of Jesus. Christian tradition reckons her the principal saint, naming her variously the Blessed Virgin Mary, Our Lady, and Mother of God (Gr., theotokos). Her name is the Hebrew Miriam. Shelley's Frankenstein and thetelevision series Buffy buffy(buf��e) of the color buff; light yellowish pink to yellow, including orange-yellow to yellow-brown. the Vampire vampire,in folklore, animated corpse that sucks the blood of humans. Belief in vampires has existed from the earliest times and has given rise to an amalgam of legends and superstitions. Slayer. The topic they had beengiven for an in-class writing task read: Compare how the composers of two texts, 'Frankenstein' and 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' have used the Gothic to convey their stories. This question invites adoption of a particular topic or theme (theGothic), and identification of elements of that topic in order toilluminate il��lu��mi��nate?v. il��lu��mi��nat��ed, il��lu��mi��nat��ing, il��lu��mi��natesv.tr.1. To provide or brighten with light.2. To decorate or hang with lights.3. the nature of the two texts responded to. We shall call thegenre written in response to this question a thematic interpretation Thematic Interpretation is the practice of verbal and non verbal communication, utilizing illustrated and non illustrated techniques, used by interpretive naturalists, Natural and cultural interpretive specialists, tour guides and others to present complex and sometimes dry subject ,because it takes up the topic or theme given by the teacher andinterprets the texts discussed in the light of that. The teacherreferred to the text as an 'essay', and that is of course ageneral term in use, though our name is intended to capture theparticular text type or genre required. Text 1 shown in Figure 1, by astudent we shall call 'Jim' (not his real name), was deemed avery good answer by the teacher. (For ease of reading, a few typos havebeen removed.) In setting out the text as we have, we can seeimmediately some of the reasons why the text was judged successful. Itsoverall organisation is very focused, and this depends on the fact thatJim had a strong sense of how to marshall Marshall.1 City (1990 pop. 12,711), seat of Saline co., N central Mo.; inc. 1839. In a large farm area, it is a processing center for grain, eggs, meat, and dairy products. Marshall is the seat of Missouri Valley College. his information and deploy itfrom one stage of the text to another. We can summarise Verb 1. summarise - be a summary of; "The abstract summarizes the main ideas in the paper"sum, sum up, summarizesum up, summarize, summarise, resume - give a summary (of); "he summed up his results"; "I will now summarize" the overall structure of the text thus, where ^denotes sequence: Theme Identification/Preview of Theme Elements ^ Element Evaluation ^ Reiteration of Theme The opening stage of the text, referred to as the 'ThemeIdentification/Preview of Theme Elements' has the function ofstating both the theme or topic to be examined and elements to beconsidered with respect to that theme. The stage termed the'Element Evaluation' then moves through a series of stepsexamining each of these elements in some detail: each step may bethought of as a phase within the overall stage of the text. The finalstage has the function of restating the Theme, bringing the text to aclose. What can we say of the overall language choices made by Jim inorder to create the text? Here we shall invoke To activate a program, routine, function or process. notions of Theme in theSFG, and to avoid confusion with the other way in which the word'theme' is used here, we should note that whenever the term isused in its technical sense, we shall show it thus: Theme. Elsewherewhen we refer to the 'theme' or broad topic adopted for thewriting of the text, as we have done already, we shall use thenon-capitalised form. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the functional grammar, whatever isin Theme position in the clause in English is what is put first: it isthe point of departure for the message of the clause, as in these twoclauses taken from Text 1: There are many techniques used by both composers //which can be compared and used to answer such a question. In both these cases the Subject of the clause has been made Theme,and the point may seem unremarkable. But what is of interest, especiallyto the teacher of writing, is that other elements of a clause maysometimes be made Theme as in: In both Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Frankenstein we can see examples of strong emotions used throughout, or In the episode 'School hard' Buffy is the saviour and the hero to her friends and mother In both the latter two cases, because what is put first is not theSubject of the clause, it is regarded as a marked Theme, meaning it isatypical atypical/atyp��i��cal/ (-i-k'l) irregular; not conformable to the type; in microbiology, applied specifically to strains of unusual type. a��typ��i��caladj. : something apart from the Subject is foregrounded or madeprominent. English speakers enjoy considerable capacity to play withwhat they make thematic in their talk and in their writing, and thiscapacity is very much in evidence in Text 1, helping to shape thedirections in which the text is organised and unfolds. However, there is another sense in which the text unfolds, buildingwith both a Macro-Theme and Hyper-Themes (Martin & Rose, 2003). Theformer is so-called because it refers to a statement--normally at leastone sentence, though it may be several--found at the start of a text,which serves to point directions for what is to come. It is'macro' because it establishes the major idea(s) that concernsthe text overall, thus also predicting what is to come. The Hyper-Themeon the other hand--normally found at the opening of a new paragraphwithin the text--is an introductory sentence or sentences, which relateback to what is the Macro-Theme, while also predicting what is to comein subsequent sentences within the paragraph. It is 'hyper'because it provides the issues/ideas that will predominate within theparagraph. Beyond the Hyper-themes there will in turn be the Themechoices found in the clauses. Where the text works successfully, theoverall patterns of Macro-Theme, Hyper-Themes and Themes serve to builda sense of overall unity in what is stated. The way Jim handles hisTheme choices has a great deal to do with his overall success. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Figure 2 sets out the patterns of Macro-Theme and Hyper-Themes inText 1: we can see clearly how the Macro-Theme predicts what is to come,while the Hyper-Theme choices both refer back to what has been predictedand refer forward to what is to come in each paragraph. Looking more closely at the details of what is stated in creatingthe Macro-Theme, we note that some language choices bring us to thesecond of the features making this a successful text--namely thecapacity to introduce abstract notions or ideas about the textsdiscussed. Note how the writer asserts that four main elements are to beoutlined and compared: the use of strong emotions, dramatic tension, theuse of typical evil and good themes and also the use of strange andmysterious realms. These all represent abstractions about the Gothictheme with respect to the stories to be discussed. By identifying thesein the Macro-Theme, the writer positions himself to make selectivereferences to details of the stories of the two texts in order toexemplify ex��em��pli��fy?tr.v. ex��em��pli��fied, ex��em��pli��fy��ing, ex��em��pli��fies1. a. To illustrate by example: exemplify an argument.b. the elements, though he avoids the trap--quite common in lesssuccessful writers--of getting lost in unnecessary details of plot orcharacter. Each of the four elements identified, it will be apparent,provides the Hyper-Themes that are elaborated upon in the paragraphssubsequent to the first. We can pursue the pattern of Theme choices within any paragraph ina text, examining the Hyper-Theme and Theme choices in turn, while alsousing their absence as part of diagnosing problems in texts that do notappear to work well. The successful writer will often pick up someimportant language item(s) towards the end of a clause or a sentence andplace it in Theme position in the next clause or sentence. (2) Take forexample the first paragraph in the stage we have termed the ElementEvaluation, where the notion of strong emotions is developed. Note thatthe first sentence is the Hyper-Theme and that it also has a markedTheme, a very common feature at the opening of a new stage in a text ofthis kind (or sometimes of a new phase within the stage). Also note themanner in which the notion of emotions, introduced in the first sentencetowards the end of the sentence is re-expressed in the second sentencein Theme position, with the reference to 'Spike's love forDrusilla'. Emotions then are introduced in later sentences, notalways in Theme position. The effect is to build a sense of an unfoldingof information, moving forward while also harking back, and building anoverall sense of unity of meaning. In both Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Frankenstein, we can see examples of strong emotions used throughout. Spike's love for Drusilla causes him to take dramatic measures and risk even his own life to benefit her. Also, in the episode 'Some assembly required' which copied the Frankenstein theme, we can see the love between the monster and his incomplete wife. In Frankenstein strong emotions form a large point of the story in allowing us to engage in the book by reading of the intense emotions between characters. 'Hateful day when I received life' (p133) were the writings of the monster in Frankenstein, showing us the depression and sadness which is a critical part of the Gothic genre. Similar patterns emerge in the other paragraphs so that Text 1overall works very well, and the teacher's comment noted that thetext was 'well structured' and that it showed 'a goodunderstanding of Gothic elements.' She also noted that the text had'a good intro and conclusion.' Writing in response: Text 2 In the same class another text by a student we shall call'Ben' was deemed less successful. He clearly knew quite a lotabout the two texts to be discussed, and he also understood the notionof the Gothic. He was in fact somewhat disappointed at histeacher's response, and he acknowledged afterwards af��ter��ward? also af��ter��wardsadv.At a later time; subsequently.afterwardsor afterwardAdverblater [Old English ?fterweard]Adv. 1. that he did notunderstand what he should do in order to improve. We shall set out Text2 below, and it will be apparent even on the first reading that Ben wasless successful than Jim, both because he had an uncertain sense of howto offer some abstract observations about the two texts in hisMacro-Theme, and of how to develop the text so that a subsequent seriesof Hyper-Themes elaborated upon the Macro-Theme. Gothic elements are apparent in both the text 'Frankenstein' and the television series 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer', they are evident in the scenery, characters and the plot. One very evident Gothic element in Frankenstein is the creature himself, created by Frankenstein with a scientific breakthrough. This gothic element is then taken and used in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode called 'Some assembly required' where a science geek and his friend bring back the science geek's brother after his death. This story also parallels Frankenstein in the fact that like Frankenstein's monster the brother, Daryl, wants a female monster to be made because he is lonely. When it can't be done the monster goes into a fit of anger, and, in Frankenstein, the monster starts murdering Frankenstein's friends and family. The scenery in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Frankenstein also has gothic elements. Examples of these are crypts, where Buffy goes to investigate, an abandoned warehouse, where Buffy's enemy, Spike, lives, the glacier in the mountains above Frankenstein's village where he confronts his monster and the monster tells him his story. There is also the forest Frankenstein's monster lives in after running away and the hut on the island Frankenstein lives in while attempting to make a second monster. Yet Frankenstein decides making another monster is an atrocious thing and rips up the body, he then dumps it in the sea. The plots in both texts are very gothic, in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, there are vampires, people with super-strength and Buffy herself, the 'chose one', chosen to kill vampires until she dies, she goes about her business with her friends, Giles , Xander, Willow, Angel and Cordelia plus others, tight-fitting clothes and darkened sets. In Frankenstein, the plot is dark, with the monster being made, when it awakens, Frankenstein realises what he has done and flees, on returning the monster has gone and Frankenstein rejoices. Yet when he gets home, he finds the monster has killed his brother and sentenced another woman to death. When exploring a glacier in the mountains, Frankenstein finds his monster and is disgusted, but he lets the monster tell him his story and then agrees to later make the monster a second monster to live with, but Frankenstein changes his mind and more people die. When Frankenstein finally dies on a man's ship, the monster comes to say farewell and then jumps into the sea. Underlying the whole plot is dark moods and gothic genre. Evidently both texts are very gothic using monsters created from body parts, vampires abandoned warehouses and empty glaciers. Text 2 certainly reveals that Ben had read and viewed the two textsinvolved and had understood them, though in practice he wrote rathermore about Frankenstein than about Buffy the Vampire Slayer. However, hehad not succeeded in using his knowledge as the teacher intended him todo. Her comment made this apparent: ' Ben, you have not clearlydiscussed the Gothic elements, you obviously have some idea, however,this is not clear'. This advice, while generally accurate, did notprovide much assistance about how to improve. We have already notedearlier that what constitutes success in writing is often taken forgranted, thus remaining invisible, and the teacher's comment,though well intended, seems to illustrate the point. If we look closely at Ben's opening, it is apparent heunderstood the need for an introduction to his text, and he providedone, albeit not a very strong one. In asserting that Gothic elementswere apparent in both Frankenstein and Buffy the Vampire Slayer, hesought to establish their presence in the scenery, characters and theplot. Such notions do in fact represent abstractions, in that they areterms in general use about story texts, both verbal and visual. However,their very generality gen��er��al��i��ty?n. pl. gen��er��al��i��ties1. The state or quality of being general.2. An observation or principle having general application; a generalization.3. is the problem, since they do not relate to thespecific issue here, to do with the Gothic. Thus, no very strongMacro-Theme is provided, about which Ben might have gone on to develop aseries of Hyper-Themes, elaborating on each in turn in later paragraphs.A skilled writer might in fact make use of the three elements Ben chosein order to develop more specific detail about the Gothic topic, but inthe hands of an unconfident writer they do not provide an adequate basisfor the subsequent development of the text. Hence, having identified his three elements in his very briefopening paragraph, Ben experienced difficulty in proceeding, for he didnot develop each of these in any structured way, so that his secondparagraph shows little relationship to any of the three. Subsequentparagraphs have similar problems. Overall, the tendency in the way Benwrote is to digress di��gress?intr.v. di��gressed, di��gress��ing, di��gress��esTo turn aside, especially from the main subject in writing or speaking; stray. See Synonyms at swerve. into retelling re��tell��ing?n.A new account or an adaptation of a story: a retelling of a Roman myth.the story of the text underdiscussion, while drifting rather haphazardly from one point to another.He does at one point provide a Hyper-Theme about the plot, though it isnot successfully elaborated in the subsequent related paragraphs: In Frankenstein, the plot is dark, with the monster being made, when it awakens, Frankenstein realises what he has done and flees, on returning the monster has gone and Frankenstein rejoices. Yet when he gets home, he finds the monster has killed his brother and sentenced another woman to death. When exploring a glacier in the mountains, Frankenstein finds his monster and is disgusted, but he lets the monster tell him his story and then agrees to lat make the monster a second monster to live with, but Frankenstein changes his mind and more people die. When Frankenstein finally dies on a man's ship, the monster comes to say farewell and then jumps into the sea. The writing of response genres will necessarily involve someretelling of details of stories, though this will be because such detailis used to provide evidence to elaborate upon the point being made aboutthe text discussed. Here, Ben had trouble bringing the retelling intothe service of the argument, a matter that is clear when we note thelack of any consistent development in the manner in which the Themechoices unfold unfold - inline throughout this section of the text. However, it is clear that Ben could demonstrate some facility inhandling his writing, suggesting that with more overt Public; open; manifest.The term overt is used in Criminal Law in reference to conduct that moves more directly toward the commission of an offense than do acts of planning and preparation that may ultimately lead to such conduct. OVERT. Open. assistance inlearning to shape his text, he could succeed. Consider, for example, the paragraph in which Ben creates aHyper-Theme which identifies both the scenery and Gothic elements: The scenery in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Frankenstein also has gothic elements. Examples of these are crypts, where Buffy goes to investigate, an abandoned warehouse, where Buffy's enemy, Spike, lives, the glacier in the mountains above Frankenstein's village where he confronts his monster and the monster tells him his story. There is also the forest Frankenstein's monster lives in after running away and the hut on the island Frankenstein lives in while attempting to make a second monster. Unfortunately the rest of the paragraph fails to sustainelaboration of the Hyper-Theme, drifting again into information that isnot demonstrated to be relevant. Nonetheless, the capacity to createappropriately relevant text is there, and clearly capable of beingmentored and developed. In fact, at the time of writing this paper, Benhad received assistance from one of the authors (a member of ourresearch team) and had begun to demonstrate growing confidence andsuccess in handling the writing of response genres of various kinds. Theassistance consisted of a workshop on generic structure, whereBen's text was mapped onto a genre template (1) A pre-designed document or data file formatted for common purposes such as a fax, invoice or business letter. If the document contains an automated process, such as a word processing macro or spreadsheet formula, then the programming is already written and embedded in the with the stagesidentified so he could see both where his text was fulfilling thegeneric requirements and where it was lacking. The stages and theirfunctions were explained to him, and then he and the researcher jointlyreconstructed re��con��struct?tr.v. re��con��struct��ed, re��con��struct��ing, re��con��structs1. To construct again; rebuild.2. his text, filling in the missing parts, taking out theirrelevant parts (such as the extensive retelling of the story), andrewriting re��write?v. re��wrote , re��writ��ten , re��writ��ing, re��writesv.tr.1. To write again, especially in a different or improved form; revise.2. the parts where he had, as his teacher commented, 'someidea'. Ben was then able to use his new-found understanding of thestructure to write his next assignment. His teacher, gratified grat��i��fy?tr.v. grat��i��fied, grat��i��fy��ing, grat��i��fies1. To please or satisfy: His achievement gratified his father.See Synonyms at please.2. at the improvements, actually wrote on asubsequent piece of writing: 'B+ Well, you've let the secretout--you can do very good work! This is the minimum standard I expectfrom now on'. Our view is that there need be no secret, providedthe necessary language tools for construction of the target text typeare understood, taught and properly mentored. In our next section weshall outline some steps to pursue with students in order to developtheir confidence in writing texts of the kind we have discussed. Some steps for teaching and learning Here are some steps we advocate for teaching thematic interpretivegenres of the kind identified in this paper, all of which are based onprevious experience of working with genre pedagogy (see for example,discussions in Martin, 1999; Unsworth, 2000; Macken-Horarik, 2002, toname a few). * Examine the wording of the question, discussing the significanceof particular words that provide clues about what is required inwriting. In the instance considered in this paper, the direction to'compare' two texts is important, but so too, is the referenceto 'the Gothic'. Consider what kind of main preoccupation pre��oc��cu��pa��tion?n.1. The state of being preoccupied; absorption of the attention or intellect.2. Something that preoccupies or engrosses the mind: Money was their chief preoccupation. isinvolved for writing. * Identify an example of the target genre. Keeping instances ofmodel texts is a good practice for teachers and students to follow,adapting what is learned from these. * Deconstruct de��con��struct?tr.v. de��con��struct��ed, de��con��struct��ing, de��con��structs1. To break down into components; dismantle.2. the example of the target genre. Here it is importantto introduce and use names: Theme Identification/Preview of MainElements, Element Evaluation and Reiteration of Theme. The meaning andpurpose of these elements needs to be extensively discussed, so thattheir role in the overall unfolding of the text is made clear. * Look more closely at the organisation of the sample text withinthese elements, and consider what is a Macro-Theme--a main orover-arching theme for a text. Discuss the notion of an abstract idea orgeneralisation Noun 1. generalisation - an idea or conclusion having general application; "he spoke in broad generalities"generality, generalizationidea, thought - the content of cognition; the main thing you are thinking about; "it was not a good idea"; "the thought , as that is relevant to the question--in this case'the Gothic'--and consider how it can be used to create theMacro-Theme. Consider how the Macro-Theme can predict forward into theideas developed in the text. * Consider the kinds of Hyper-Themes that can be used forsubsequent paragraphs and stages in the text, discussing how they canlook back to the Macro-Theme, while also looking forward to what is tobe elaborated within the paragraph or stage. * Write a text in response to the question. Sometimes it is usefulto do this as a joint activity, especially as students are stillmastering what is involved, though with growing confidence, students canmove into writing independently. Over time, it may not prove necessary to go over and revisit re��vis��it?tr.v. re��vis��it��ed, re��vis��it��ing, re��vis��itsTo visit again.n.A second or repeated visit.re allsuch steps. That is because, so our experience shows, once students havegrasped that there is a structure involved around which they can shapewhat it is they need to write, then they can proceed to their writingwith growing accuracy, confidence and enjoyment. Conclusion We began this paper with a claim that writing is a significantskill especially in the secondary years, for it is of fundamentalimportance for assessment and evaluation. In no subject in thecurriculum is it more important than in subject English. Students ofEnglish across the secondary years must learn a range of genres or texttypes, including various response genres, notable for their function inappraising and responding to other texts, literary, non-literary andverbal. Construction of such response genres, we have sought todemonstrate, requires a capacity to organise and marshal An English word that means to arrange into a particular order as a means of preparation. See data marshalling. informationabout the texts to be responded to, in such a way that a clear focus isoffered and pursued in an orderly manner. Such a text will make skilleduse of abstractions to do with the theme or topic under discussion,where these will constitute a central part of what we have termed theMacro-Theme. The subsequent unfolding of the text will be successfulwhere it demonstrates the presence of a series of Hyper-Themes, markinga movement through related stages and/or phases within these, all ofthem functioning in such a way that they build their knowledge orinformation both by looking forward and looking back. These matters arecapable of being taught, and once they begin to grasp the basic toolsfor shaping their written texts, students will make rapid strides intheir learning. References Christie, F. (2007). Genres and institutions: Functionalperspectives on educational discourse. In N. Hornberger (Ed.),Encyclopedia encyclopedia,compendium of knowledge, either general (attempting to cover all fields) or specialized (aiming to be comprehensive in a particular field).Encyclopedias and Other Reference Books of Language and Education (2nd ed.). NY: Springer springera North American term commonly used to describe heifers close to term with their first calf. . Coffin, C. (2006). Historical Discourse. London and NY: Continuum Continuum (pl. -tinua or -tinuums) can refer to: Continuum (theory), anything that goes through a gradual transition from one condition, to a different condition, without any abrupt changes or "discontinuities" . Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring How Texts Work. Sydney: PETA Quadrillion (10 to the 15th power). See space/time. . Halliday, M.A.K & Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. (2004). An Introductionto Functional Grammar (3rd ed.). London: Arnold. Macken-Horarik, M. (2002). 'Something to shoot for': Asystemic systemic/sys��tem��ic/ (sis-tem��ik) pertaining to or affecting the body as a whole. sys��tem��icadj.1. Of or relating to a system.2. functional approach to teaching genre in the secondary school.In A.M. Johns (Ed.), Genre in the Classroom: Multiple Perspectives. NJand London: Erlbaum, 17-24. Martin, J.R. (1999). Mentoring semogenesis: 'Genre-based'pedagogy. In F. Christie (Ed.), Pedagogy and the Shaping ofConsciousness: Linguistic and Social Processes. London and NY:Continuum, 123-155. Martin, J.R. & Rose, D. (2003). Working with Discourse. Londonand NY: Continuum. Martin, J.R. & Rose, D. (in press). Genre Relations: MappingCulture. London: Equinox equinox(ē`kwĭnŏks), either of two points on the celestial sphere where the ecliptic and the celestial equator intersect. The vernal equinox, also known as "the first point of Aries," is the point at which the sun appears to cross the . NSW Department of School Education, Metropolitan East Region(1994). Exploring Literacy in School English. Resources for Literacy andLearning. The Write it Right Project. Sydney: NSW Department of SchoolEducation. Unsworth, L. (Ed.) (2000). Researching Language in Schools andCommunities: Functional Linguistic Perspectives. London and Washington:Cassell. Frances Christie UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY The University of Sydney, established in Sydney in 1850, is the oldest university in Australia. It is a member of Australia's "Group of Eight" Australian universities that are highly ranked in terms of their research performance. , UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE AsiaWeek is now discontinued. Comments:In 2006, Times Higher Education Supplement ranked the University of Melbourne 22nd in the world. Because of the drop in ranking, University of Melbourne is currently behind four Asian universities - Beijing University, Shoshana Dreyfus UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG HistoryThe University of Wollongong was founded in 1951 when a Division of the then New South Wales University of Technology (re-named the University of New South Wales in 1958) was established in Wollongong. (1) The study is called 'Key Indicators of Development inAdolescent ad��o��les��centadj.Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence.n.A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. Writing'. Other members of the research team are BeverlyDerewianka, Sally Humphrey and Helen Lewis. (2) In the functional grammar the item that falls towards the endof a sentence, or clause within it, is referred to as New Information,and when this reappears in Theme position in the following sentence, itis then referred to as Given Information. (Halliday & Matthiessen,2004). Such a pattern, while not invariable in��var��i��a��ble?adj.Not changing or subject to change; constant.in��vari��a��bil , often appears insuccessfully coherent texts.Figure 1 . Setting out the stages in theschematic structure of Text I.Theme How have both Joss Whedon and MaryIdentification / Shelley effectively used elements of thePreview of Theme Gothic genre to add meaning andElements characterise their tales? There are many techniques used by both composers which can be compared and used to answer such a question. Four main elements I will outline and compare are; the use of strong emotions, dramatic tension, the use of a typical evil and good theme and also the use of strange and mysterious realms. These elements, I believe have been used effectively by both composers and have resulted in two very different and yet in some ways the same, compositions.Element In both Buffy the Vampire Slayer andEvaluation Frankenstein, we can see examples of strong emotions used throughout. Spikes love forElement 1 Drusilla causes him to take dramatic measures and risk even his own life to benefit her. Also, in the episode 'Some assembly required' which copied the Frankenstein theme, we can see the love between the monster and his incomplete wife. In Frankenstein strong emotions form a large point of the story in allowing us to engage in the book by reading of the intense emotions between characters.Element 2 'Hateful day when I received life (p133) were the writings of the monster in Frankenstein, showing us the depression and sadness which is a critical part of the gothic genre. Dramatic tension also plays a large part in both compositions, enthralling the audience and enticing us to hang on to every word of the story to discover the leadings of such drama. In both Frankenstein and Buffy, we observe a classic 'damsel in distress theme. In the episode 'School hard', Buffy is the saviour and the hero to her friends and mother, however, in Frankenstein, the 'damsel', being either Clerval or Elizabeth, was not saved as is accustomed to such a setting, this however further impresses upon us the gothic elements of disappointment sadness and horror.Element 3 One of the main elements of both Buffy and Frankenstein which obviously classifies the compositions as 'Gothic' is the use of a 'good and evil' theme. The appearance of heroes Frankenstein struggles to undo evil, he himself created such horror and is unable to save between the two for domination. Buffy represents a hero, as the protector of those too weak to defend themselves or just too oblivious. Buffy fights the forces of evil, and the supernatural, in dark and strange places to ensure that evil has no place in the world. However, in Frankenstein, there is not so much a hero-type figure, for although Frankenstein struggles to undo evil, he himself created such horror and is unable to save the ones he loves. We can see this in the death of innocents such as William, Clerval, Justine and Elizabeth.Element 4 The use of strange realms and unusual settings in both compositions also plays a vital role in the classification of both under the Gothic genre. In the episode 'School hard' Buffy climbs into the roof to reach others and in the episode 'Some assembly required' we were witness to dark dungeons in which experiments were carried out of the most gruesome manner. Also in Frankenstein there is lots of travel to unknown realms and many locations such as the ice caves, where we see the Gothic setting helping to influence the feel of the story.Restatement Overall the use of gothic genre in bothof compositions helps us to understand better,Theme the happenings of the works. The Gothic genre is used effectively by both Joss Whedon and Mary Shelley to add empathy and further meaning to their compositions. Both stories are made more interesting and more engaging through the use of such gothic elements as I have explained. After reading Frankenstein and viewing Buffy we can see how these Gothic elements have changed the way that both compositions are experienced by the audience.