Learning to care during storytime in the current context: moral education from the perspective of care ethics.

Learning to care during storytime in the current context: moral education from the perspective of care ethics. Through an examination of storytelling StorytellingAesopsemi-legendary fabulist of ancient Greece. [Gk. Lit.: Harvey, 10]MünchäusenBaron traveler grossly embellishes his experiences. [Ger. Lit. in the present context, thisstudy addresses the teaching of moral education from the standpoint ofcare ethics. Through observations, interviews, and surveys in one schoolcommitted to care ethics, this study aims to show how the philosophicalperspective of care ethics can inform practice. Teachers engaged theirstudents in dialogue over stories to (1) provide opportunities forstudents to put themselves "in the shoes of" characters, inparticular the perpetrator A term commonly used by law enforcement officers to designate a person who actually commits a crime. , (2) connect to students' experiences inrelationships, and (3) allude to allude toverb refer to, suggest, mention, speak of, imply, intimate, hint at, remark on, insinuate, touch upon see see, elude students' realizations duringrelational challenges or altercations. Throughout their experiences,students explained in rich detail how stories cultivate their learningto care for one another. Keywords: moral education, care ethics, narrative ethics, story ********** (W)e soon reap the fruits of literature in life, and prolongedindulgence in any form of literature in life leaves its mark on themoral nature of man. (Plato, 1955, p. 134) In the current educational climate, technocratic aspects ofschooling, such as standardization and high-stakes testing, seem totrump moral concerns, such as what kind of persons we may foster throughschooling experience. Yet moral purposes for education cannot be ignoredor diminished; they have remained central to educators' vision ofeducation, from Plato onward. Indeed, Simon (2001) argued that moral andexistential questions, such as "How shall I live?," haveinspired the academic disciplines. Ironically, contemporary pressures to"cover" content to prepare students to perform on standardizedtests threaten to diminish schooling's moral dimensions. Thus,today's climate renders moral education of even greater import. Because stories have the power to express who we are, storytellingis linked with moral education (MacIntyre, 2007; Polkinghorne, 1988).Ricoeur (1984) wrote, "A story describes a sequence of actions andexperiences done or undergone by a certain number of people, whetherreal or imaginary" (p. 6). Arthur Danto Arthur Coleman Danto (b. 1924) is an American art critic, professor and philosopher. Arthur C. Danto was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1924, and grew up in Detroit. After spending two years in the Army, Danto studied art and history at Wayne University (now Wayne State (1985) described how astory can transform readers' self-understanding by holding upmirrors to their character: [A story is] a kind of mirror, not simply in the sense of rendering up an external reality, but as giving me to myself for each self peering into it, showing each of us something inaccessible without mirrors, namely that each has an external aspect and what that external aspect is. Each work of literature shows in this sense an aspect we would not know were ours without benefit of that mirror.... It is a mirror less in passively returning an image than in transforming the self-consciousness of the reader who in virtue of identifying with the image recognizes what he is. Literature is in this sense transfigurative. (p. 79) When teachers read and discuss stories with students, theexperience could shape students' understanding of the humancondition. Stories may have the potential to pass on moral norms,beliefs, culture, and history (Leming, 2000). In fact, many argue thatthe human brain is predisposed pre��dis��pose?v. pre��dis��posed, pre��dis��pos��ing, pre��dis��pos��esv.tr.1. a. To make (someone) inclined to something in advance: to reason in story terms (Bruner, 1990;Haven, 2007; Pinker, 2000). Not surprisingly, from the traditionalcharacter education perspective, a corpus of study enumerates whichparticular stories should be used in the classroom for moral education(Bennett, 1993; Kilpatrick, 1992; Lickona, 1991; O'Sullivan, 2002).However, this literature has been critiqued for not addressing how toteach these suggested stories (Leming, 1997; Narvaez, 2002). In particular, Narvaez (2002) critiqued the character educationliterature for listing what teachers should read without addressing howto teach morality through the stories: "Bennett and his supportersassume an outdated passive reader theory, in which readers digest whatthey read as a whole--as if what is on the page is transported (beamed)directly into the mind of the reader" (p. 156). Readingcomprehension theorists (see Derry, 1996; Rumelhart, 1980) have arguedthat teachers must attend to readers' prior knowledge (or schema)to understand what meaning they are constructing from text. In fact,much empirical research Noun 1. empirical research - an empirical search for knowledgeinquiry, research, enquiry - a search for knowledge; "their pottery deserves more research than it has received" on reading comprehension has shown that schemaaffects comprehension (Harris, Lee, Hensley, & Schoen, 1988; Keene& Zimmermann, 1997/2006; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995; Reynolds,Taylor, Steffensen, Shirey, & Anderson, 1982; Steffensen, Joag-Dev,& Anderson, 1979). Narvaez (2002) explained that research has found"readers frequently distort text content to conform withpreexisting pre��ex��istor pre-ex��ist ?v. pre��ex��ist��ed, pre��ex��ist��ing, pre��ex��istsv.tr.To exist before (something); precede: Dinosaurs preexisted humans.v.intr. knowledge" (p. 157). Given the complexity of readingcomprehension alone, moral learning through stories must require morethan just reading particular stories, as implied by the charactereducation perspective. Furthermore, character education has been critiqued not only formerely listing stories to read, but also for its universalpredetermination predetermination,n an administrative procedure whereby a dental professional submits a treatment plan to the carrier before treatment is initi-ated. of virtues (Kohlberg, 1981), didactic di��dac��ticadj.Of or relating to medical teaching by lectures or textbooks as distinguished from clinical demonstration with patients. methods ofinculcation in��cul��cate?tr.v. in��cul��cat��ed, in��cul��cat��ing, in��cul��cates1. To impress (something) upon the mind of another by frequent instruction or repetition; instill: inculcating sound principles. (Lickona, Schaps, & Lewis, 1998), and emphasis onextrinsic EVIDENCE, EXTRINSIC. External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a motivation (Kohn, 1993). In fact, preset presetCardiac pacing A parameter of a pacemaker that is programmed permanently when manufactured lists of stories,virtues, and rewards for behaving virtuously seem to reflect thepredominant focus on standardizing content knowledge. Furthermore,authoritatively defining what is good behavior Orderly and lawful action; conduct that is deemed proper for a peaceful and law-abiding individual.The definition of good behavior depends upon how the phrase is used. and rewarding thatbehavior may teach more about following authority than about being acaring, generous, or respectful citizen. In contrast, care ethics recognizes the complexity and importanceof human relationships in moral education, as well as the role thatcontext plays in determining what is moral in a given situation. Inparticular, some work has been done to translate care ethics intopractice in classroom management (Charney, 2002; Watson, 2003). However,we do not know much about how to address teaching care ethics tochildren through stories. Thus, the current study explores the followingresearch question: How can teachers teach care ethics through stories? MORAL EDUCATION, CARE ETHICS, AND STORY In its traditional conception, moral education is viewed asimparting a specific body of knowledge. By contrast, the philosopher NelNoddings Nel Noddings (1929– ) is an American feminist, educationalist, and philosopher best known for her work in philosophy of education, educational theory, and ethics of care. (1984, 1992, 2002) conceptualized that moral growth occurs inthe development of enduring, reciprocal, and responsive relationships.Thus, instead of drawing from a body of predetermined pre��de��ter��mine?v. pre��de��ter��mined, pre��de��ter��min��ing, pre��de��ter��minesv.tr.1. To determine, decide, or establish in advance: virtues to beinculcated, care ethics focuses on open-ended, process-orientedexperiences through which students learn to practice virtues inrelationships. Noddings (Noddings, 1984, 2002) located the followingexperiences in particular: dialogue, modeling, confirmation, andpractice. In effect, we may learn about how to be moral through messytrial-and-error experiences with one another--rather than throughimplanting a set of virtues, as convenient as that would be. Rather than segregate seg��re��gate?v. seg��re��gat��ed, seg��re��gat��ing, seg��re��gatesv.tr.1. To separate or isolate from others or from a main body or group. See Synonyms at isolate.2. moral education as a discrete subject, apractice that John Dewey (1909) famously likened to teaching swimmingoutside the water, care ethics recognizes the social and moral relevanceof relationships as the site of, and the motivation for, moral behavior.Thus, everything that occurs within the teacher-student relation,through modeling, acquires moral significance. Relations serve as themedium through which the experiences of schooling create habits of mindin students. Therefore, pedagogy becomes a site necessary to analyze forrelational and social implications. For example, educators must ask:Does this pedagogy support or hinder relationships across racial,ethnic, and cultural divides? An ethic of care allows teachers to recognize the necessity ofexamining the social and relational implications of their educationalpedagogy. Yet traditional notions of moral education segregate moraleducation from the central curriculum and view it as a distinct body ofknowledge to be taught. This segregation influence permeates even theliterature on care ethics, because it tends to focus on classroommanagement (Charney, 2002; Watson, 2003). Thus, we lack empirical workon the nature of teaching care ethics through "corecurriculum" experiences, such as reading stories. Therefore, thecurrent study aims to address this gap through exploring how teacherscan teach care ethics through stories. Through observations, surveys,and interviews, the nature of a dialogue over stories lies at the heartof this investigation. METHOD As we do not know much about teaching care ethics through stories,a qualitative approach was appropriate (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982); thedata include video-recorded and transcribed observations; documentation(teachers' lesson plans, notes, and student work); tape-recordedinterviews; and surveys to all participants, including teachers andstudents. Pseudonyms This article gives a list of pseudonyms, in various categories. Pseudonyms are similar to, but distinct from, secret identities. Artists, sculptors, architectsBalthus (Balthazar Klossowski de Rola) Bramantino (Bartolomeo Suardi) are used for all names to protect theparticipants' anonymity. Three elementary school elementary school:see school. classrooms in oneK-12 elementary school were purposefully chosen for the school'sand teachers' explicit commitment to care ethics. Context and Positionality The context for this study is a K through 8th-grade elementaryschool located in an urban area of northern California Northern California, sometimes referred to as NorCal, is the northern portion of the U.S. state of California. The region contains the San Francisco Bay Area, the state capital, Sacramento; as well as the substantial natural beauty of the redwood forests, the northern . The socialeconomic status of the students is primarily lower and middle class. Theschool population is composed of 5% African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. students, 15%Hispanic or Latino students, 50% Asian, 20% white, 8% Filipino, 1%American Indian/Alaska Native, and 2% Pacific Islander Pacific Islandern.1. A native or inhabitant of any of the Polynesian, Micronesian, or Melanesian islands of Oceania.2. A person of Polynesian, Micronesian, or Melanesian descent. See Usage Note at Asian. . Having taught atthis school prior to becoming a teacher educator, I became interested inthe school's commitment to fostering caring relationships, as anaspect of their mission to address the "whole child." Whileteaching at this school, I studied the teachers' attempt to teachcare ethics in school traditions (Rabin, 2003) and through theirtheater-arts program (Rabin, 2009). My prior experience with this school community renders me aparticipant-observer. Glesne (2006) suggested that participantobservation participant observation,n a method of qualitative research in which the researcher understands the contex-tual meanings of an event or events through participating and observing as a subject in the research. opens up opportunities for "acquiring the status of'trusted person'" and to "develop a quality oftrust, relationship, and obligation with others in the setting" (p.49). Along these lines, my prior connection within the school affordedme access, because the teachers invited the current study. Data Sources and Analysis Overall, the data collected were observations, interviews,documentation, and surveys. The locus of the observations was eighteen60-minute periods of storytime (reading and discussion of stories) inthree classrooms (six observations in each), one 1st grade, onecombination 2nd and 3rd grade, and one 4th and 5th grade. I alsoobserved twelve 30-minute sessions on the playground. Duringobservations and immediately afterwards, I took fieldnotes (Emerson,Fretz, & Shaw, 1995). I also examined documentation, such asteachers' lesson plans and students' reading journals, assources of data, which cannot be influenced by a researcher'sbiases (Merriam, 2002). I conducted individual interviews of approximately 45 to 60 minuteswith each of the teachers, as well as 10 self-selected 1st- through4th-graders and five self-selected 5th-graders. In these semistructuredinterviews, I cast myself as a learner (Glesne, 2006) and askedopen-ended questions, such as, "Describe the role of story insocialization socialization/so��cial��iza��tion/ (so?shal-i-za��shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so��cial��i��za��tionn. ." Also, the teachers were asked to determine relevantstories and how to initiate a dialogue with students over stories. Thestudents responded to open-ended questions about their experiencediscussing stories, such as, "Describe your experience readingstories and talking about friendship" and "What can we learnabout relationship, if we can, through these discussions overstories?" The teachers and students in 1st through 5th grades hadanother opportunity to respond to these same questions through surveysto further access participants' views and triangulate See triangulation. the data. AsI analyzed the observation, survey, documentation, and interview data,the teachers made themselves available to cross-check emerging themes. To interpret these data, I took a grounded theory approach(Merriam, 1998). I compared and cross-checked across the data sets. Overtime, I derived relevant categories in the method of constant comparison(Merriam, 1998). Which Stories? Before discussing the findings, I briefly explore how the teacherschose stories to read. This context can provide more background for theexcerpts of dialogue that follow. Because lists of stories for moraleducation proliferate pro��lif��er��atev.To grow or multiply by rapidly producing new tissue, parts, cells, or offspring. , as noted above, the current study does not focuson which stories teachers read. However, given these abundant lists,criteria with which to choose from the lists may be relevant. Theteachers' descriptions of their choices reflected three elements:relevance to students' lives, relational content, and thestory's artistry art��ist��ry?n.1. Artistic ability: a sculptor of great artistry.2. Artistic quality or craft: the artistry of a poem. . This characteristic example shows how Rachel, ateacher, described these elements in her story choice of Estes' TheHundred Dresses (1944). Estes' story chronicles the experiences ofWanda, a young Polish immigrant, as she attends a new school, where herclassmates Classmates can refer to either: Classmates.com, a social networking website. Classmates (film), a 2006 Malayalam blockbuster directed by Lal Jose, starring Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indragith, Sunil, Jagathy, Kavya Madhavan, Balachandra Menon, ... assume she is stupid and tease her until she leaves theschool. Rachel's description follows: The story is told from the point of view of one who goes along with the bullying, the one who didn't speak up. The main character was only a few steps down in status from the one teased. She knows she could have been the victim. She doesn't have nice clothes or social status, and that drove her to become the teaser. Readers listen to her thought process and can experience incredible remorse. We needed this story, because my students need to realize their power to stop bullying. We discussed how there is never a neutral position. If we think we are being neutral, we are taking the side of the oppressor. From a story with this kind of depth of complexity in real relationship, the kids can have a lot to talk about and a lot to learn. It has the necessary artful authenticity. Throughout the teachers' descriptions of appropriate stories,they touched on these connected themes of the story's authenticartful art��ful?adj.1. Exhibiting art or skill: "The furniture is an artful blend of antiques and reproductions"Michael W. Robbins.2. telling of complex issues in relationships. The teachers deemedthese elements necessary to inspire the kinds of discussions thatensued. FINDINGS From observations in the three classrooms and on the playground, aswell as the teachers' and students' interviews, lesson plans,and surveys, definite trends emerged. In the shared dialogue concerningthe relationships in stories, the teachers often articulated (1)invitations to students to put themselves "in the shoes of"all the characters, in particular, the perpetrator; (2) references tostudents' situations in relationships; and (3) references tostudents' realizations during relational challenges. The studentsconfirmed these opportunities to talk about relationships over storiesas influential in their learning. Throughout the interviews, theteachers argued that their students' relational learning throughstories seemed to correlate with a deeper understanding of the storiesin general. Invitations to Students To Put Themselves "in the Shoesof" Characters First, the teachers often asked their students to think beyondstory plot to explore what the characters in the stories might befeeling. Noddings (2002) wrote about this question as a core componentof moral education: "Dialogue is central to moral education becauseit always implies the question, 'What are you going through?'" (p. 17). Learning to consider another's perspective lies atthe heart of care theory. The following example provides a glimpse into how the teachersasked questions to cultivate students' understanding ofrelationships through awareness of others' feelings, experiences,and perspectives. In this case, Rachel's 2nd- to 3rd-grade studentswere reading Estes' (1944) The Hundred Dresses, the story describedabove in which Wanda, an immigrant, is teased and bullied. Rachel began with a specific quote from the story: Rachel: That sentence we just read struck me. "I never thoughtshe had the sense to know we were making fun of her anyway. I thoughtshe was too dumb." How might Wanda have felt? Emma: Everybody has feelings. Rachel: Could you say a little more about her feelings, Emma? Emma: Not so much. Sam: We all get a feeling about the way somebody is acting to you. Steven: You can know if it's nice or if it's not. Sima: They weren't really listening to her at all. Rachel: So, how might Wanda have felt? Emma: Very sad and so invisible. As the conversation continued, Rachel prompted several students toshare how they might feel in Wanda's situation. In her interview,Rachel explained the importance of querying her students in this vein:"They want to skip to what they'd do. Yet the only way I canteach them to care on the playground is by teaching them to stop andthink about what the other person might actually feel." Rachelallowed the students to think about what they would do. Rachel: Okay, so now what could they have done? Frank: No one asked her a question. Jason: We know she's not dumb and maybe they could havefigured that out, too, if they actually tried to find it out. Rachel: What might you have said then? The students discussed the need to "actually try to findout" about others or approach others with curiosity, as opposed toapproaching them with preconceptions. Their conversation suggests theirlearning that Wanda would notice she was being teased even if shecouldn't understand the other students. Rachel's students saidthat one's feelings can reveal teasing, despite language barriers.Another student stated the need to "try to find out" about aperson in contrast with judging him or her. In diverse multilingualclassrooms, refraining from judging others based on English language English language,member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. proficiency is particularly important. In her interview, Rachel furthermentioned her intention to use stories to support a student from SouthAmerica South America,fourth largest continent (1991 est. pop. 299,150,000), c.6,880,000 sq mi (17,819,000 sq km), the southern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. who spoke little English: "Paola speaks little English andthis gets associated with status, unless we intentionally challenge theassumptions. Discussing stories is one way." Rachel claimeddialogue over stories is one way to challenge her students'correlation of status with English proficiency. Another aspect of students putting themselves in the"characters' shoes" involved considering the potentialfeelings of less admirable characters. For example, in this case, Tim, a4th- to 5th-grade teacher, invited his students to try to understand acharacter who caused some strife for all his friends, the king inSteig's The Real Thief (1975). Tim: Now, put yourself in the shoes of the king. Someone has stolenjewels from the treasury. Your guard keeps telling you there is nopossible way the jewel was stolen. What are you feeling? Michael: I wouldn't know what to do. He was my good friend. Itwould be tough. He doesn't know whether Gawain took them. In the next comment from this same conversation, another studentchanged the subject to actions as opposed to feelings, and Tim drew Timothy Andrew Drew (born August 31, 1978 in Valdosta, Georgia) is an American former Major League Baseball player. The brother of MLB players J. D. Drew and Stephen Drew, Tim is a pitcher that played for the Cleveland Indians (2000 and 2001), Montreal Expos (2002 and 2003), and thestudents back to the challenge of considering how the king might feel: Steven: I would lock him up and see if the robbery stopped. Thenhe'd know if Gawain did it. Tim: Okay, we're getting away from how you would feel. Howwould you feel about it and how would you treat Gawain? Nicole: I would feel confused and hurt by Gawain, just because Iwould wonder if he did it. Danielle: I'd feel betrayed by Gawain and so I guess acombination of mad and sad. Prompted by Tim, many students ventured to hypothesize hy��poth��e��size?v. hy��poth��e��sized, hy��poth��e��siz��ing, hy��poth��e��siz��esv.tr.To assert as a hypothesis.v.intr.To form a hypothesis. how theymight feel if they were in the character's situation. Then Tim letthe conversation turn to what they learned from empathizing with the"bad" guy. Arazeli: Although he's mad, he should try not to accuse theother person like Gawain did the moment he found out.., not immediatelyaccuse him. He should try to figure it out. But it's hard when youare mad. I have to try to calm down before going and hurting my friendback and overreacting. Steven: Yeah, I think what he should do is wait and observe. Thetrouble with acting when you are really upset is that you can do crazythings. Interestingly, as in this example, in general, the students'ideas after empathizing with the "bad" guy's situationwere more nuanced and thoughtful. For example, as opposed to"locking up" another character, the same student, Steven,decided the king should wait and observe instead of doing "crazythings." In Tim's interview, when asked how he teaches hisstudents about relationships through stories, he said, One way I teach my students about relationship is by taking the character that is the least sympathetic in the moment in the text and asking questions about how the characters are feeling, how the students might feel if they were in that character's situation. That's important, because in real life, we have to practice empathy with someone who isn't doing what we think is the right thing. Tim asked his students to consider the viewpoint of the charactersfor whom they might feel less sympathy. He argued that these acts ofmoral imagination are preparation for caring. Analogously, Noddings (2002) explored the importance of imaginingthe perpetrator's perspective as the starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting pointterminus a quocommencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the for moraleducation: (W)hen we look at the perpetrator, we are ... comforted because we are not, could not be, that monster. But when we look at the scene of suffering and see.., possibilities for ourselves, then a new horror is aroused, and that horror provides a starting point for morally directed critical thinking. (p. 50) Learning to care entails imagining the role of not only a victim,but also that of a perpetrator. These teachers show how students can beengaged in this difficult thinking through insistent prompting. The students' perspectives. In the students' own words,they uncover why the challenge of entertaining characters'perspectives may be effective in teaching care ethics. In theirinterviews and surveys, they contrasted learning about relationshipsthrough more extrinsic means, such as school rules that imposebehavioral control with "feeling" with characters. Forexample, Jason, a 4th-grader, said: Rules like "be nice, do this and that," aren't as good as story for learning to care for one another, because in stories you get a sense of why, like what will be the end result if you do. It's like, would you get a better sense of a tree if you see it or if someone describes it? The author can tell you how the character feels or you're having the feeling, like you are the character. Jason said his experience with feeling the possible consequences ofcharacters' actions provides him with the intrinsic motivation totreat others with care. From stories, he gained a sense of"why" he might make the effort to care for someone. In another example, Tyler, a 5th-grader, said learning about carethrough stories motivated him more than learning through rules. Heimplied that this learning comes partly from having felt with thecharacters in a story. When I'm told I'm not as obedient to learn it because it's doing something for the other person, and when stories describe things with friends, it's inspiring me to do it. Being told--I kind of question if that inspires me to do it at all. Stories I can do it if I want to--so it inspires, like to think about somebody else's feelings. I'll be thinking I don't want anyone to feel as bad as the character in the story. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Tyler, instilling in��stillalso in��stil ?tr.v. in��stilled, in��still��ing, in��stills also in��stils1. To introduce by gradual, persistent efforts; implant: "Morality . . . in students a list of virtues withattendant meanings may not inspire virtuous conduct. Rules and awardsfor following them may be limited in that they could inspire rebellionor mindless obedience to authority. In contrast, the experience ofreading and discussing stories seemed to provide an avenue to cultivateethical understanding, because he empathized with the characters. Thestudents said through feeling with characters, they acquired a vibrantawareness of the multiple challenges and meanings of care. Through empathizing with characters, the students acquired insightinto the potential effects of how the characters treated each other. Theteachers and students said this cultivated learning about caring fromstories. It was important, in particular, in this diverse context tochoose to dialogue over a story that highlighted the importance ofrefraining from judging a student for language differences. Interestingly, in interviews, all the teachers confirmed that theseinsights alone often fail to influence their students' actualbehavior. Across all the discussions, the students often focused on whatthe characters could do, as opposed to what they themselves might do.Therefore, the teachers asserted that this questioning must be combinedwith drawing explicit connections to their students' actualexperiences in relationships. How could these connections be madewithout dictating what is moral or relying on telling students how totreat one another? The following findings focus on how the teachersresisted prescribing students' behavior, and instead drew onknowledge of their students to initiate their own construction ofrelational understanding. Reference to Knowledge of Students' Situations inRelationships The teachers also repeatedly referred to knowledge of theirstudents' particular relationships during the dialogues. Forexample, the 1st-grade teacher, Molly, asked her students to consider analtercation she witnessed over sand tools (shovels and pails for thesandbox A restricted environment in which certain functions are prohibited. For example, deleting files and modifying system information such as Registry settings and other control panel functions may be prohibited. ) during her discussion over the classic Dr. Seuss Noun 1. Dr. Seuss - United States writer of children's books (1904-1991)Geisel, Theodor Seuss Geisel story TheSneetches (1961). In The Sneetches, the characters procure membership inan in-group by alternately putting on or removing stars on theirbellies. Molly asked, "What might be possible connections betweenwhat is happening for the Sneetches and the trouble in the sandboxtoday?" Grace: It's better to have sand tools. Angela: And I didn't have one. Molly: So some had sand tools and some didn't. That's thetrouble? Oliver: We were only thinking about sand tools. Molly: Nothing else seemed important? Sally: Yup. Oliver: The trouble comes since we all need the same thing, likethe Sneetches, and with the Sneetches you see the thing is okay not tohave. Molly: So what else could you do when you are upset about the sandtools? As this discussion continued, Molly asked them to consider otheroptions for play in the sandbox after Oliver's analysis of theSneetches awakened a��wak��en?tr. & intr.v. a��wak��ened, a��wak��en��ing, a��wak��ensTo awake; waken. See Usage Note at wake1.[Middle English awakenen, from Old English him to realize the students had limited their ownoptions. Parallel to the Sneetches resolving their conflict by realizinghow inconsequential in��con��se��quen��tial?adj.1. Lacking importance.2. Not following from premises or evidence; illogical.n.A triviality. the stars were to the Sneetches' worth, thestudents seemingly became quietly satisfied once they'd agreed thatthe sand tools weren't actually necessary. Although the conversation could have ended here, Molly referred towhat she knew of her students' actual experiences; this concreteknowledge provided additional opportunities for her students to probethe relationships in the story more deeply. In this case, Molly relayedthat she had seen two students (one of whom was Oliver) monopolize mo��nop��o��lize?tr.v. mo��nop��o��lized, mo��nop��o��liz��ing, mo��nop��o��liz��es1. To acquire or maintain a monopoly of.2. To dominate by excluding others: monopolized the conversation. thetools repeatedly. She leveraged this knowledge to support their reachingbeyond their first understanding of needs versus desires. Molly: So you could let go of the sand tools, but what if some kidshad the tools all the time for the rest of year? Just like if one groupof the Sneetches kept "stars on thars...." Will you--shouldyou--always let it go? Bob: No. Molly: What do you want to do instead? June: We'd have to share them. Molly: What would that look like? Oliver: Well, it would be way harder. Molly: So true, Oliver, and why might it be worth talking about? Imean, why might the Sneetches have talked? Oliver: Not quite sure. Molly: Think a little more though, really. Oliver: People won't like us, like the Sneetches were dividedin half. As the conversation continued, Molly and her students discusseddifferent possible courses of action. She pushed them to consider howthey might share if she were absent: "I won't always be near.It could get like the Sneetches again. How could you make it work outfor all of you on your own?" When Oliver monopolized the tools,Molly took the opportunity to ask him to provide his own reason fordiscussing how they might share. She noticed his underlying reluctanceto discuss sharing, because she had observed his actions on theplayground. Molly could have merely told Oliver that everyone must learnto share at school but instead gave him the chance to find his ownpurposes. Because this requires thinking more deeply aboutrelationships, it may inspire additional insight. Furthermore, havingstudents imagine themselves as active agents may render this method morecompelling than merely following directions. In the following example, another teacher, Rachel, drew on herstudents' own relationships in class to discuss the stories. Sheselected a student-authored story about exclusion, Puff and Sadie, inwhich a girl named Sadie excludes Puff (a dragon). After the dragonadmits to being sad, Sadie is moved to include him. Aware that there hadbeen an altercation over girls and boys excluding one another, Rachelasked her students: Rachel: Today, I noticed some kids were playing together and otherswanting to join like Puff did, but were turned away. Samantha: Sometimes there are no girls allowed. David: I wanted to play with them (the girls), but theywouldn't let me, so we made our own game. More comments continued about why they excluded each other: Rachel: Does this work for you all? Tim: Someone ends up crying like Puff. Rachel: I notice that. Can everyone think about this? What can wedo? Jane: Puff and Sadie worked it out in the story. Rachel: How did they work it out? Ellie: They worked it out by telling the truth about it. Rachel: What are some truths you think they uncovered? As the conversation continued, the students unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. more aboutthe consequences of excluding each other. They considered playing gamesthat necessitate including boys and girls boys and girlsmercurialisannua. and even everyone. Along theselines, in Molly's interview she added, "Drawing on the storieshelps me to get at issues of differences in general, culture or gender,like in the example you saw concerning exclusion between girls andboys." It's important to note that the students had discussedthe story for 10 minutes without raising the issue of their ownexperience with playground exclusivity over gender difference. Yet theyhad just experienced the story's theme of exclusion. Often in theconversations, it appeared that the students' ideas concerning howto care for each other may have remained dormant without the teachersprompting them to make connections to their own experiences. The students' perspectives. The students also noted theirteachers' allusions to their relationships during the conversationsover stories as relevant in their learning. For example, 4th-graderDanielle said: I think it's good for learning when, let's say, I'm having a situation going on with a friend and we talk about it in the middle of talking about the story. The story is coming to life more and I'd just let the situation alone, stuff it down, because I didn't know what to do. But we brought it up during the story talk. Danielle described how discussing the relationships in stories is"good for learning." She suggested that she might sidestep side��step?v. side��stepped, side��step��ping, side��stepsv.intr.1. To step aside: sidestepped to make way for the runner.2. dealing with a conflict if it weren't for the storytime allusion al��lu��sion?n.1. The act of alluding; indirect reference: Without naming names, the candidate criticized the national leaders by allusion.2. toit. In general, this practice---connecting students' relationalexperiences to those in the stories-seemed to inspire the students tothink deeply about what it really means to care for each other. Forexample, the students' discussion demonstrates the lessons theymight learn from characters like the Sneetches: (1) the consequences ofexcluding someone different from themselves; (2) the potential to resistthe lure of prestigious objects, such as the sand tools; (3) thenecessity to establish methods to share these objects; and (4) the needto think before speaking when angry. The discussion also illuminated thestudents' disinclination dis��in��cli��na��tion?n.A lack of inclination; a mild aversion or reluctance.Noun 1. disinclination - that toward which you are inclined to feel dislike; "his disinclination for modesty is well known" to apply the themes in the stories totheir own lives without the teachers' prompting. However, thestudents' comments highlight their willingness to learn throughdoing so, if given the opportunity. Thus, the teachers' thrust indialogue was often toward applying the stories' lessons to"real life." The next finding demonstrates another methodthrough which the teachers supported student learning to transcend the"armchair," and to do more than just "talk." StoriesBeyond Storytime: Referencing Students' Realizations DuringRelational Challenges On the playground, the teachers referred to the storytimediscussions in the midst Adv. 1. in the midst - the middle or central part or point; "in the midst of the forest"; "could he walk out in the midst of his piece?"midmost of students' actual relationshipstruggles. Allusions to stories allowed the students to access theirrelational understanding. Moreover, without this perspective, theteachers found that the students' learning may remain mere"talk" that fails to inform their own behavior. For example, Molly drew on Ellie's and Sadie's priordiscussion of relationships in story in the midst of a conflict over thewooden blocks. Ellie sobbed for lack of a cylinder-shaped block to adornher structure. She repeatedly implored Sadie, to no avail, as Sadietrapped all the other cylinders on her lap. Molly approached Sadie andspoke directly to her: "Remember how we can figure out how acharacter might have felt in the story by looking at her face? What canwe notice is happening for your friend here? Do you see her face? Here,let's look up for a moment." Molly described her thinking inher interview: For my students, the most important learning is there is another perspective, because their own needs are sometimes what is solely apparent. When they want the block, they want it. Without stories, it's hard to really show them that there are others with other feelings. During the story, I'll have them look at the illustrations to notice how the character might be feeling, and then in real life, in this situation with the blocks, I asked Sadie to see Ellie's face. It's harder to ask in a "real" situation without the story bridge. Molly explained how when her students don't get along, she canallude to their growing recognition of others' feelings throughdiscussing stories. As she put it, stories provide a bridge tounderstanding. As in the following example, telling evidence of this processfrequently emerged in the teachers' interviews. During a case ofexclusion on the playground, Rachel referred to how she inspired herstudents to reflect on their own actions in practice by drawing on theirprevious discussion of stories: You saw me notice Jim. I came close slowly and said, "Hmm ... so is this like what you were describing earlier with the Sneetches, or more of a case like when Mzee didn't at first warm to Owen?" Then, suddenly, they know I'm there to support their learning about how to be with others and we can talk about it. Not always, like if it's already to the point of sobbing. If they are already sobbing, then it can be possible later to learn from it with the help of the stories. Rachel described how she approached a student and alluded to tworelated scenarios in stories the class had read together. Instead oftelling her students how to behave, she gently alluded to the story andasked a pointed question. In so doing, she opened up a discussion withJim that inspired him to think deeply. She allowed her student to decidehow to arbitrate the situation by raising two possible analogies insteadof one. Along these lines, Rachel described why she finds this method ofteaching students to care by referring to stories so effective: The stories give them a sense of, "Oh, so this is what can happen in relationships" Then, they are less likely to feel ashamed and more likely to deal with what happened. If I were to say, "Stop excluding Sadie," they then feel judged. If they did include Sadie, it's still unclear what they've learned, if anything. Rachel described how the stories provide a framework ofunderstandings that enable students to make better sense of their ownrelationships. This framework allows them to situate sit��u��ate?tr.v. sit��u��at��ed, sit��u��at��ing, sit��u��ates1. To place in a certain spot or position; locate.2. To place under particular circumstances or in a given condition.adj. individual actionsin a larger context. She said the students don't feel so singularly"wrong" for their mishaps. This freedom fromjudgment--combined with access to a growing body of knowledge aboutrelationships--contributes to the students' willingness to engagein a conversation toward learning. Along these lines, Molly added:"Stories tackle hard things, like racial conflicts, or they showvery different characters facing their differences or just beingdifferent and still being friends, like Owen and Mzee Owen and Mzee are a hippopotamus and a tortoise, respectively, that appear to have formed a unique bond of friendship.A baby hippopotamus, Owen, was orphaned in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Kenya near Malindi during the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on December . Through talkingabout these differences, students see their issues of difference andthey don't feel defensive that they exist." The teachers said that stories can support students overridingtheir defensiveness concerning "hard" relational challenges,such as those concerning ethnicity, through dialogue over stories.Ultimately, Rachel contrasted this process with stories with telling herstudents to follow prescribed rules, and she questioned whether theirinclusion would transfer to any other situation. Interestingly, Rachel described alluding to stories as providingstudents with "a thread" to lead them "out of amaze": Instead of me telling the students to include one another (which is scripted), they really identify with the stories. When I bring them up, it can bring them back to all the understandings they came up with when they were talking about the story. It's like a thread out of a maze. They need that thread when they are upset and can't access all they know about how to treat one another. Reflective of care theory's elevation of particular experienceover overarching o��ver��arch��ing?adj.1. Forming an arch overhead or above: overarching branches.2. Extending over or throughout: "I am not sure whether the missing ingredient . . . or prescriptive pre��scrip��tive?adj.1. Sanctioned or authorized by long-standing custom or usage.2. Making or giving injunctions, directions, laws, or rules.3. Law Acquired by or based on uninterrupted possession. criteria for care, Rachel described howstudents learn about virtuous actions and caring for one another as theyrecognize its necessity in creating relationships. Along these lines, Tim highlighted how important it is for hisstudents to take responsibility for making sense of the stories'allusions, as opposed to imposing his own interpretations on them orassociating his students with a wrongdoer: It's important not to accuse kids of anything. They could think I was not really seeing them, their point of view. Or as soon as I make an overt connection for them, I turn the story into my message to them. They would go along, but I'd take the story away from them. Instead, I bring a story up more indirectly or am careful to draw on their own statement during our dialogue. Tim highlighted how tempting it is to turn a story into aninstrument for the teacher's own ends, rather than use it as amedium for student learning. In this case, story dialogues would not bea true alternative to establishing rules about how students should treateach other; a teacher could easily accuse a student by referring to astory and coerce him or her into agreement with what the teacherprescribes as "correct behavior." Rachel added to an understanding of how to allude to a storywithout removing students' latitude to make their own meaning: It (whether or not it is successful to do so) all depends on the teacher's perspective. If she can refer to the story to clarify what's happening with the children in relationship.., without criticism, then the students know it's safe to think about it. They'll be free to disagree with the teacher if they don't think there is a connection. So this way, I can really see if they are learning about it, what they are learning, when they are actually in relationship. Like Tim, Rachel pointed out the importance for teachers torecognize their power to narrow students' thinking and reduce it toonly agreeing with the teacher. Rachel argued that her students (perhapsover time) could sense her lack of judgment and appreciate how theirfreedom to disagree allows them space to learn. When the teachersengaged their students in morally directed thinking (inspired by thestories) and connected this thinking directly to students' actualexperience in relationships, the students learned much about how to carefor one another. The students' perspectives. The students also described howdrawing connections between their dialogues over stories during theiractual challenges with relationships was effective. For example, Ellen,a 5th-grader, wrote: "If you're out on the playground and youget in a fight, it's like you're alone with it. If you startthinking about the stories, it's like you'll have friends tohelp you see things in different ways." Ellen illuminated how thestories expand the way she "sees" or perceives her playgroundaltercations. As 3rd-grader Nicole put it: "Rachel helps usremember the stories we've read when we talk with her about why weare fighting. That really gets me thinking." In Nicole'scharacteristic description, she implied that the practice of recallingconnections to stories during her own relationship issues contributed toher learning. The students' comments reflect their growing"framework," or larger context of relational knowledge, thatthey are building through discussion over stories. CHALLENGES Several factors in particular challenged these teachers'attempts to teach care through story. First, time and effort is involvedin choosing the stories to read and connecting the ideas in the storiesto the students' lives. The teachers must know the students welland attend to their actions beyond the classroom. All the teachersasserted they chose stories for their specific connection to theirstudents' situations. For example, Rachel related reading Hatkoff,Hatkoff, and Kahumbu's Owen and Mzee (2006), because she found thather students were making assumptions about a new student who struggledto make friends. The teachers also had to know what was actually happening on theplayground to draw allusions during the stories. Rachel said, The stories give insight and they teach feeling, but I have to know the kids to help them make the connections to their own lives, or I'm not sure they would. Then they need help to make connections to their insights over the stories when they are playing, and here again, I'm not sure they would without this. I have to teach this just like we teach math or spelling--in context and through multiple means. So this means paying attention to relational issues throughout the day. Rachel's comment about the importance of continuity reflectshow enormous the actual demands of teaching students to care really are.Her hunch hunch?n.1. An intuitive feeling or a premonition: had a hunch that he would lose.2. A hump.3. A lump or chunk: "She . . . that the students might not "make the connections totheir own lives" was reflected in the data, for even when thestudents had actually experienced the same relationship challengeaddressed in the story, they rarely brought it up themselves. Thus, theteachers needed to observe their students closely in play to determinetheir challenges in relationships and initiate dialogue over them. Infact, these teachers claimed that relational learning requires the samelevel of commitment to teaching any skills. Interestingly, the level ofintegration these teachers described reflects Leming's (2000)recent evaluation of a character education program. Leming found thatalthough the program did not explicitly require teachers to integratethe teaching of virtues across the curriculum areas, when they did, theresults were significant. Along these lines, the teachers also often mentioned misgivingsabout the limits of dialogue's influence. They noted thecategorical That which is unqualified or unconditional.A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding.Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. difference between discussing what it means to care andactually doing it. This theory-practice divide perhaps illuminates whythe majority of the teachers aimed to draw connections beyond the text.Tim said, "Teasing can really be an under-the-radar thing. Theystill tease despite the conversation you just observed, and I can'tbe everywhere." Despite some setbacks, Tim recognized the promiseof the work: Yet I think what we really have seen is that a culture of reflection gets created by reading of stories with this kind of reflective discussion. My kids aren't always kind to each other, but they are conscious of how they treat one another, when they are being mean, and when they are kind. And they make efforts to relate. Tim recognized that his students do not always treat one anotherwith care despite his efforts, but he noted their awareness of how theytreat each other and how they try to treat one another well. He pointedto the promise of engaging in this kind of work with students--to createa culture in which they reflect on their actions in relationships tolearn to care. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION Research in moral education and story has neglected delving intowhat it would actually require to teach moral content in stories(Leming, 1997; Narvaez, 2002). The current study offers one window intothe kind of dialogues over story that might be necessary to learn moralcontent. Overall, the teachers engaged their students in dialogue overcaring relationships--through three lines of questioning. The datashowed that these inquiries led to rich insights about how to care. First, when the teachers asked their students how characters in thestories might feel, the students considered how "feelings"alert us to when we are being teased or treated poorly, even if wedon't understand the language. The dialogue over stories revealedthe importance of teaching students how to refrain from making judgmentsand asking others questions to determine what they were experiencing.This learning was particularly relevant to interrupt the association ofEnglish language proficiency with status. From empathizing with the"bad guy," the students contemplated the limits of acting whenupset and the necessity, as Arazeli put it, "to calm down beforegoing and hurting" a friend. Second, given that the students did not seem to make connectionsfrom their story dialogues to "real life" beyond the"armchair," the teachers referenced the stories--inrelationship to students' own lives and relationshipchallenges--during the storytime dialogues. In one such conversation, astudent determined that he wouldn't make friends if he hoarded allthe sand toys. Third, the teachers brought up the stories in othercontexts--such as on the playground, when students were embroiled em��broil?tr.v. em��broiled, em��broil��ing, em��broils1. To involve in argument, contention, or hostile actions: "Avoid . . . inrelational challenges. For example, in the midst of an argument overwooden blocks, Molly demonstrated how she provided her students with anopportunity to learn about other perspectives through referring to storyillustrations. Also, Rachel drew on the stories to offer severalanalogies for students to refer to in settling their playgroundconflicts. The stories were seen to contribute to a framework ofunderstandings. This framework, Rachel said, was particularly helpful tosupport students to build relationships across ethnic and other divides,for they became aware of the challenges involved. The students learnedthat conflicts occur across differences, as part of their broaderunderstanding of the challenges involved in making and sustaining caringrelationships. Although these learning experiences demanded extensive time andeffort on the teachers' part, they argued that the focus did notundermine "core" curriculum, such as story comprehension.Because the focus in the current study did not involve measurableacademic gains, this data remains anecdotal. Yet interestingly, theteachers claimed that using the stories to talk about caring led todeeper understanding of the stories and increased engagement in school.Molly averred that her students' essential need to be in caringrelationships must be met before they can engage in schoolwork:"While all the pressure is on student achievement, the truth thatteachers really know is that nothing happens unless your kids aregetting along. Relationships are more important to them than ourcurriculum, and they check out if they are suffering from lack offriends or teasing, etc." Also consonant consonantAny speech sound characterized by an articulation in which a closure or narrowing of the vocal tract completely or partially blocks the flow of air; also, any letter or symbol representing such a sound. with all of theteachers' perspectives, Rachel added that her students"actually understand the story better, since stories are reallyabout our humanity. If they identify with the feelings, then theyunderstand the plot and the author's artistry better." Increased comprehension through drawing connections tostudents' own experiences reflects the importance of activatingprior knowledge to understand text, as noted above (Harris et al., 1988;Keene & Zimmermann, 1997/2006; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995;Reynolds et al., 1982; Steffensen et al., 1979). Along these lines ofconnection to experience, Rachel noted that stories reflect aspects ofour common humanity. This perspective underscores the appropriateness ofteaching care through stories, in that what it means to be human hasmuch to do with the challenges of establishing and maintainingrelationships. In sum, the teachers' questioning in dialogues over storiesappeared to provide a unique opportunity for students to learn aboutcaring for one another. The teachers' metaphors, pepperedthroughout the data, encapsulate en��cap��su��latev.1. To form a capsule or sheath around.2. To become encapsulated.en��cap their perception of this uniqueopportunity. Suggesting stories' transformative potential, theteachers said stories served as "a bridge" and "a threadto lead out of a maze." The students said that the"thread" that stories provided was more inspiring to supporttheir learning than rules or more didactic methods. As one student aboveput it, feeling with the characters motivated him because the experiencegave him a fuller sense of why one might care for another. He alsocompared stories to "seeing a tree versus having it described"to him. He said this fuller experience led him to "feel with acharacter." Based on feeling with characters, the studentsthemselves uncovered what it means to treat one another with care. AsGreene (2000) put it, "Meanings spring up all around.., as soon aswe are conscious, and it is the obligation of the teachers to heightenconsciousness of whoever they teach by urging them to read and look andmake their own interpretations of what they see" (p. 35).Teachers' efforts to foster students' learning to care are allthe more important in the current context--given our narrow focus onstandardization and high-stakes testing. If we allow these predeterminedgoals to overshadow o��ver��shad��ow?tr.v. o��ver��shad��owed, o��ver��shad��ow��ing, o��ver��shad��ows1. To cast a shadow over; darken or obscure.2. To make insignificant by comparison; dominate. students' exploration of what it means to care,we may fail to explore powerful learning opportunities to teach studentsto create caring relationships. Stories, and the thoughtful dialoguethat can accompany them, may provide teachers with such an opportunity.Now more than ever, we must ask the following question of ourcurriculum: Will it enable our students to acquire the moralunderstandings necessary to create a more humane world? The currentstudy begins to reveal the potential venue that stories can be forstudents to develop the relational capacities necessary to create abetter future. DOI (Digital Object Identifier) A method of applying a persistent name to documents, publications and other resources on the Internet rather than using a URL, which can change over time. : 10.1080/02568543.2011.533114 REFERENCES Bennett, W. J. (1993). 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Colette Rabin San Jose San Jose, city, United StatesSan Jose(sănəzā`, săn hōzā`), city (1990 pop. 782,248), seat of Santa Clara co., W central Calif.; founded 1777, inc. 1850. State University, San Jose, California San Jose (IPA: /ˌs?nhoʊˈzeɪ/) is the third-largest city in California, and the tenth-largest in the United States. It is the county seat of Santa Clara County. Submitted October 23, 2009; accepted May 12, 2010. Address correspondence to Colette Rabin, Elementary Education elementary educationor primary educationTraditionally, the first stage of formal education, beginning at age 5–7 and ending at age 11–13. , SanJose State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, CA 95192-0074.E-mail: colette.rabin@sjsu.edu