Learning difficulties/disabilities in literacy.

Learning difficulties/disabilities in literacy. Concern about students who experience problems in learning to readand write is widespread in Australia. Although such concern is not new(Cadman 1996), it has been more keenly felt since Australian schoolshave been asked by governments to be more accountable for the literacyachievements of all students. For example, the Commonwealth Governmentrecently funded a study of literacy and numeracy numeracyMathematical literacy Neurology The ability to understand mathematical concepts, perform calculations and interpret and use statistical information. Cf Acalculia. in primary schoolstudents with learning difficulties (Louden et al. 2000). In thisintroductory paper, I will give a brief history of the field usuallyknown in Australia as learning difficulties, though internationally themost common label used is learning disabilities. In the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. during the 1960s, clinicians and researchersfrom disciplines such as psychology, special education and medicinebecame aware of students who had extreme difficulty in learning to read.Initially terms like dyslexia dyslexia(dĭslĕk`sēə), in psychology, a developmental disability in reading or spelling, generally becoming evident in early schooling. To a dyslexic, letters and words may appear reversed, e.g. , minimal brain damage Noun 1. minimal brain damage - a condition (mostly in boys) characterized by behavioral and learning disordersADD, ADHD, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, hyperkinetic syndrome, MBD, minimal brain dysfunction , minimal cerebraldysfunction were used to describe students who did not appear to haveany impairment Impairment1. A reduction in a company's stated capital.2. The total capital that is less than the par value of the company's capital stock.Notes:1. This is usually reduced because of poorly estimated losses or gains.2. , but who struggled to learn to read and spell. In orderto shift attention to the students' educational needs, the termlearning disabilities was adopted, and it soon came to stand forstudents with a multitude of other problems as can be seen in thefollowing early definition. Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include children who have learning problems, which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantage. (United States Office of Education 1977, p. 65-83) The definition of the term learning disabilities is generallyregarded as problematic, since it identifies learning disabilities asproblems that cannot be attributed to causes such as limited schoolattendance, low intelligence or emotional disturbance. In effect, it isdefinition by exclusion. Over the years the definition of learningdisabilities has been `tinkered with' by, for example, the NationalJoint Committee on Learning Disabilities in the USA. This committee hastried to balance the professional perspectives (interests) of specialeducators, speech language pathologists, reading specialists,paediatricians etc. With the formation of organisations such as the Association forChildren with Learning Disabilities, and a Division for LearningDisabilities within the Council for Exceptional Children, learningdisabilities became a recognised area within special education. TheAmerican learning disabilities movement has been very influential inAustralia. Parent groups formed in each state, and linked togethernationally as AUSPELD. By the mid 1970s, AUSPELD had createdconsiderable public awareness about the needs of students who wereexperiencing difficulties in acquiring basic skills, especially inliteracy. AUSPELD lobbied the Australian House of Representatives tohold an inquiry into all aspects of learning difficulties. The report ofthe Select Committee of the House of Representatives (Cadman 1976) tooka strong stand on terminology, mainly because its members wereunconvinced that the difficulties experienced by students were usuallyof constitutional origin, which would justify the use of the termdisabilities. Thus the Committee recommended the use of the termlearning difficulties, leaving open the possibility that some studentsmay have mild neurological neurological, neurologicpertaining to or emanating from the nervous system or from neurology.neurological assessmentevaluation of the health status of a patient with a nervous system disorder or dysfunction. impairments that contribute to theirdifficulties in learning. I have argued that learning difficulties are best understood to beexperiences of students (Elkins 1983). Experience has shown that somestudents who experience learning difficulties don't respond to theusual classroom and additional supportive teaching that schools provide.Thus the term learning disabilities should be restricted to these `hardto help' students where it seems reasonable to assume that theirlimitations in learning might stem from a constitutional impairment(even though usually we can't identify it). The US definition of learning disabilities also involves adiscrepancy between the student's general ability and achievement.This notion has been criticised in recent years, though, becauseresearchers have found that there are few differences between studentslabelled as learning disabled because of a discrepancy between theirintelligence and achievement, and those who are low achievers withoutsuch a discrepancy. In effect, educators now accept the challenge ofhelping all students to learn, not simply those who under-perform on thebasis of their supposed potential. Australian interest in students' learning problems has a longhistory. Pioneers like Fred Schonell Fred Schonell (1900-1969) was an educationist, and vice-chancellor of the University of Queensland from 1960 to 1969. ReferencesSchonell, Sir Fred Joyce (1900 - 1969) Biographical Entry - Australian Dictionary of Biography Online. Retrieved on 2007-06-23. at the University of Queensland The University of Queensland (UQ) is the longest-established university in the state of Queensland, Australia, a member of Australia's Group of Eight, and the Sandstone Universities. It is also a founding member of the international Universitas 21 organisation. andMarie Neale at Monash University Facilities in are diverse and vary in services offered. Information on residential sevices at Monash University, including on-campus (MRS managed) and off-campus, can be found at [2] Student organisations were among those who stimulatedinterest. Schonell had conducted extensive research in the UK on whatwas then described as `backwardness in the basic subjects.' Onreturning to Australia, he established a remedial clinic, commenced aresearch program, founded a journal (now named the International Journalof Disability, Development and Education), and instituted a Certificatein Diagnostic Testing Diagnostic testingTesting performed to determine if someone is affected with a particular disease.Mentioned in: Von Willebrand Disease and Remedial Teaching, which provided a growingsupply of remedial teachers. From the early 1970s, Colleges of AdvancedEducation and Universities offered diplomas and higher degrees designedto provide specialised training for support teachers. Many institutionshave included some topics dealing with learning difficulties inpreservice teacher education, but much more remains to be done (Loudenet al. 2000). Teaching students who have difficulties in acquiringliteracy belongs in the pre-service programs of all teachers. One reasonof many is that regular teachers spend more time with these students,and are best placed to support their learning. Australian views of learning difficulties differ from the NorthAmerican North Americannamed after North America.North American blastomycosissee North American blastomycosis.North American cattle ticksee boophilusannulatus. preference for legislation and regulation. Despite thesecontrols, the prevalence of learning disabilities in the USA hascontinued to rise beyond the two or three per cent that was expectedwhen the field began. It is known that many students who are identifiedand served under the label learning disabilities are a heterogeneousgroup of low achieving students. Kirk and Elkins (1975) demonstratedthat most students in early US services for students with learningdisabilities were below average in IQ and could be better described aslow achievers in reading, and there is no evidence that this situationhas changed. Learning disabilities remains within the categories thatare included in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act This article or section is currently being developed or reviewed.Some statements may be disputed, incorrect, , biased or otherwise objectionable. (USDepartment of Education 2000), though the proportion designated aslearning disabled continues to expand, suggesting that regular teachersrefer students they feel need more help than they know how to provide. Australian surveys have consistently found that from 10-16 per centof students are thought by teachers to have support needs in literacybeyond those that could be addressed by class teachers (Andrews et al.1979, Louden et al. 2000). This prevalence can be interpreted as alimitation in the intervention strategies available to teachers, or asteachers knowing what to do, but being unable to devote sufficientindividual attention to those students who are experiencing problems. Louden et al. (2000) completed a major study to map the currentAustralian situation concerning elementary school elementary school:see school. students with learningdifficulties, with particular reference to literacy: Literacy hasspecial significance in Australian government education policy andrefers to the ability to use spoken and written language to function inschool and society in ways that are appropriate to students' age(Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs 1998). Prevalence of students with difficulties in literacy can beestablished from the results of benchmark testing, which aims toidentify those students who do not meet agreed standards at particulargrade levels. The results establish how many students have lowachievement in literacy, irrespective of irrespective ofprep.Without consideration of; regardless of.irrespective ofpreposition despitecause. The prevalence ratesfrom the benchmark tests in reading at Grade 3 are 13 per centnationally, with a range from 28 per cent in the Northern Territory to 9per cent in New South Wales New South Wales,state (1991 pop. 5,164,549), 309,443 sq mi (801,457 sq km), SE Australia. It is bounded on the E by the Pacific Ocean. Sydney is the capital. The other principal urban centers are Newcastle, Wagga Wagga, Lismore, Wollongong, and Broken Hill. (Kemp 2000). The prevalence in the NorthernTerritory is thought to reflect the higher proportion of indigenousstudents. Some of the students who fail the benchmark tests will berecent migrants from non-English-speaking backgrounds, with poverty andother factors known to affect learning. In the United States, there have been increasing numbers ofstudents in designated learning disability programs. So much so, that inthe State of California, more than 50 per cent of students in designatedspecial education programs are labelled learning disabled and there isan upward trend in prevalence (http://www.cde.ca.gov/spbranch/sed/enrldata.htm#table1). As part of the recent study by Louden et al. (2000), Rivalland andHouse (2000) reviewed the provision of services for students withlearning difficulties in Australia. At the national level there has beena strong commitment to improved outcomes in early literacy for severalyears. The Commonwealth Government provides supplementary funding toschools to promote the attainment of its literacy goals. Schools arerequired to give special attention to any students experiencingeducational disadvantage. These students would include thoseexperiencing poverty, those of non-English-speaking background, isolatedstudents, indigenous students and others experiencing undue difficultyin learning for reasons that may be unclear. Most of the special fundinghas been directed to students in the early years of schooling. Someattention has been given to identifying which students have made littleprogress in the first year at school. For example the First Stepsprogram (Education Department of Western Australia Western Australia,state (1991 pop. 1,409,965), 975,920 sq mi (2,527,633 sq km), Australia, comprising the entire western part of the continent. It is bounded on the N, W, and S by the Indian Ocean. Perth is the capital. 1994) incorporatesprocedures to help teachers identify those who need extra help and theQueensland Year 2 Diagnostic Net uses a similar approach. All educationsystems and sectors have developed approaches designed to give studentssuccess in early literacy. Attention is now turning to the middle yearsof schooling, and secondary schools are recognising that as thecurriculum changes, so do the demands upon students for new forms ofliteracy. Australian state and territory education systems do not generallydistinguish between learning difficulties and learning disabilities,using the former term to cover all students with high incidenceeducational problems. However, in Queensland the distinction isrecognised, with a process known as appraisement APPRAISEMENT. A just valuation of property. 2. Appraisements are required to be made of the property of persons dying intestate, of insolvents and others; an inventory (q.v.) of the goods ought to be made, and a just valuation put upon them. being used to establishthat a student meets the criteria set down. Increasingly, the termlearning disabilities is reserved for those who have not responded toremedial intervention. Most government and independent schools generallyprovide support for all students with low academic attainment inliteracy whose problems cannot be attributed to intellectual, emotional,physical or sensory disability. A study has recently been completed thatmaps the provision of services to such students with identified lowincidence disabilities who are included in regular schools (vanKraayenoord et al. 2001). Students with disabilities usually havespecific support as indicated in their IEP IEPIn currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Irish Punt.Notes:The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion. (Individual EducationProgram), such as an aide, consultant support for the teacher, specialequipment or a modified curriculum. Furthermore, some schools havesignificant enrolments from other categories of students at risk (e.g.indigenous students, those from non-English speaking backgrounds), andthis is likely to influence the ways in which they endeavour to achievepositive outcomes in literacy for all students. Thus, Australian approaches to supporting students experiencingliteracy learning difficulties include students who fit the NorthAmerican definition of learning disabilities, but are much broader andin most schools may apply to more than 10 per cent of students. Inparticular schools, depending on their context, literacy interventionsmay serve even larger percentages of the students (Andrews et al. 2002).Decisions about whether to provide additional support for a particularstudent are not context-free. For example in a school with generally lowtest scores, whole of class interventions may be used, while in a schoolwith higher achievement levels, specific one-to-one or small groupinterventions will be used for any below average students. Most Australian schools have some systematic early identificationand intervention at the classroom level, but few attempt to predictwhich students will experience difficulties. It is common for teachersto monitor all students over the first three years of formal schoolingto identify those who are making slow progress in literacy. In someschools, Reading Recovery (Clay 1987) is used as a first level ofintervention, with those students who do not make satisfactory progressthen being given ongoing assistance by support teachers. Support teachers typically choose to emphasise aspects in whichstudents appear to have experienced particular difficulty, such as inphonemic awareness Phonemic Awareness is a subset of phonological awareness in which listeners are able to distinguish phonemes, the smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning. For example, a listener with phonemic awareness can break the word "Cat" into three separate phonemes: /k/, /a/, , while trying to ensure that their efforts arecoordinated with those of the class teacher. However, teachers haveconsiderable professional discretion and hundreds of programs andstrategies are used in schools (Rivalland & House 2000). Some special approaches are also used, such as SWELL (Center &Freeman 1997, Center, Freeman & Robertson 1998), which is anAustralian adaptation of Success for All (Slavin et al. 1994) andMULTILIT (Wheldall & Beaman 2000), which is an intensive skilldevelopment small group program. Spalding's multi-sensory methodshave also been rediscovered (Moore 1998), and THRASS THRASS Teaching Handwriting Reading and Spelling Skills (Davies &Ritchie 1996), which emphasises phoneme/grapheme correspondences, ispopular in some states. Phonemic awareness programs have been developedby Australian researchers such Munro (2000) and Byrne andFielding-Barnsley (1995). While it is useful to know what teachingapproaches and materials are used to accelerate literacy learning, thereis limited research evidence as to their effectiveness, and most of theavailable information has been provided by the developers of theinterventions. At the school level, there is an absence of evaluationdata, with individual teachers collecting periodic test data, usually toinform decisions about terminating special support. There also seem tobe more students needing extra assistance than there are opportunitiesto receive it. It is very difficult to obtain reliable information on the costs ofeither identification or intervention. One reason is that there is adynamic relationship among classroom literacy teaching, earlyintervention ear��ly interventionn. Abbr. EIA process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. such as Reading Recovery and remedial intervention.Improved mainstream teaching should reduce the number of `failing'students, and the costs of remediation should lessen. Intensiveindividual intervention programs, such as Reading Recovery, are costlyand are not available in all schools. Most support teachers operate amixture of small group tutoring with inclass support and teacherconsultation. Volunteers and teacher aides often use structured systemssuch as Support-a-Reader, Support-a-Writer and Support-a-Maths Learner.It is evident that those students who need most help may be beingassigned to those least qualified to teach them, and we need research onthe effectiveness of tutoring by paraprofessionals and volunteers.Private providers of diagnostic and intervention services play animportant role, particularly in independent schools (Greaves greavescracklings, an edible raw fat from the meat trade. The skimmings from the preparation of this fat are also called greaves. They represent a low grade of meat meal. 2000). Most persons working to support students' literacy learningadopt an educational framework, though occasionally a medicalperspective gains some attention. For example, the National Health andMedical Research Council (NH&MRC See Maximum return criterion. 1990) published a documentdiscussing learning disabilities. Overall the NH&MRC supported theview that learning disability requires educational solutions. However arecent edition of the ABC Health Report claimed that reading disabilityin the United States was a `major health problem' (Swan 2002,unpaginated un��pag��i��nat��ed?adj.Unpaged. ). It is true that this has resulted in substantial fundingfor research. However, apart from brain-imaging studies that may showsome differences between good and poor readers in areas of the brainthat are activated, the majority of the research actually falls in thedisciplines of psychology and education. There are few full-time programs for students with severe orlong-term problems. Unlike the USA, there is no real debate in Australiaabout inclusion of students with learning difficulties as this is thedominant approach. Receiving help in the classroom and/or being taughtelsewhere for a few short sessions each week seem to be commonlyaccepted practices. Most education systems seem to favour an in-classcollaborative approach by support staff and the class teacher. Personalobservation in schools in several states suggests that some additionalstaff are little more than spectators who have had no part in planningwith class teachers nor agreed-on ways in which they should supportstudents experiencing difficulties. Though data are hard to obtain, itseems as if a substantial proportion of support teachers have nospecific training in collaborative planning and teaching. Children who experience learning difficulties in literacy are arecognised, if fuzzy fuzz��y?adj. fuzz��i��er, fuzz��i��est1. Covered with fuzz.2. Of or resembling fuzz.3. Not clear; indistinct: a fuzzy recollection of past events.4. , group of students. Some respond to additionalteaching, but some remain in need of support throughout their education.It will require concerted efforts by teachers, parents and the studentsthemselves to ensure their success. It will also require adequatefunding, preservice and in-service education, and careful monitoring ofpractice to determine the most cost effective approaches to teaching allstudents who find it hard to learn literacy. References Andrews, R.J., Elkins, J., Berry, P.B., & Burge, J. 1979, ASurvey of Special Education in Australia Education in Australia is primarily regulated by the individual state governments. Generally education in Australia follows the three-tier model which includes Primary education (Primary Schools), followed by Secondary education (Secondary Schools / High Schools) and Tertiary : Provisions, Needs andPriorities in the Education of Children with Handicaps and LearningDifficulties, Fred and Eleanor Schonell Educational Research Centre, TheUniversity of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld. Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. 1995, `Evaluation of aprogram to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 2- and 3- yearfollow-up and a new preschool trial', Journal of EducationalPsychology, vol. 87, pp. 488-503. Cadman, A.G. 1976, Learning Difficulties in Children and Adults,Report of the House of Representatives Select Committee on SpecificLearning Difficulties. Center, Y., & Freeman, L. 1997, `A trial evaluation of SWELL(Schoolwide Early Language and Literacy): A whole class early literacyprogram for at-risk and disadvantaged children', InternationalJournal of Disability, Development and Education, vol. 44, pp. 21-39. Center, Y., Freeman, L., & Robertson, G. 1998, `An evaluationof Schoolwide Early Language and Literacy (SWELL) in six disadvantagedschools', International Journal of Disability, Development andEducation, vol. 45, pp. 143-172. Clay, M.M. 1987, `Implementing Reading Recovery: Systematicadaptations to an educational innovation', New Zealand New Zealand(zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. Journal ofEducational Studies, vol. 22, pp. 35-58. Davies, A., & Ritchie, D. 1996, THRASS (Teaching Handwriting,Reading and Spelling Skills), Collins Educational, London. Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs1998, Literacy for All: The Challenge for Australian Schools, AGPS AGPS Assisted Global Positioning SystemAGPS Advanced Government Purchasing SystemAGPS Advanced Geo Positioning Solutions, IncAGPS Advanced Global Positioning SystemAGPS Ameron Global Product SupportAGPS Attitude Global Positioning SystemAGPS Assisted Gps ,Canberra. Education Department of Western Australia 1994, First Steps,Longman, London. Elkins, J. 1983, `The concept of learning difficulties: AnAustralian perspective' in J.D. McKinney & L. Feagans (eds)Current Topics in Learning Disabilities, Ablex, Norwood, New Jersey Norwood is a Borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. As of the United States 2000 Census, the borough population was 5,751.Norwood was formed as a borough by an Act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 14, 1905, from portions of Harrington Township. . Greaves, D. 2000, `Private provider services for students withlearning difficulties' in W. Louden et al. Mapping the Territory.Primary Students with Learning Difficulties: Literacy and Numeracy, vol1., Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Canberra, ACT. Kemp, D.M. 2000, Media release: `Percentage of Year 3 studentsachieving the reading benchmark', http://www.deetya.gov.au. April3. Kirk, S.A., & Elkins, J. 1975, `Characteristics of childrenenrolled in Child Service Demonstration Centers', Journal ofLearning Disabilities, vol. 10, pp. 630-637. Louden, W., Chan, L.K.S., Elkins, J., Greaves, D., House, H.,Milton. M., Nichols, S., Rivalland, J., Rohl, M., & van Kraayenoord,C. 2000, Mapping the Territory. Primary Students with LearningDifficulties: Literacy and Numeracy, vols 1, 2 & 3, Department ofEducation, Training and Youth Affairs, Canberra, ACT. Moore, S. 1998, Spalding in Australia: A Pilot Research Study,Department of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs,Canberra, ACT. Munro, J.K. 2000, Assessing and Teaching Phonological pho��nol��o��gy?n. pl. pho��nol��o��gies1. The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.2. Knowledge,Australian Council for Educational Research, Camberwell, Victoria For other uses of the name Camberwell, see Camberwell (disambiguation).Camberwell is a suburb of Melbourne, Australia, in the local municipality of the City of Boroondara. . National Health and Medical Research Council 1990, Expert AdvisoryPanel on Learning Difficulties in Children and Adolescents. LearningDifficulties in Children and Adolescents, Department of CommunityServices and Health, Canberra, ACT. Rivalland, J. & House, H. 2000, `Mapping system provision forlearning difficulties', in W. Louden et al. Mapping the Territory.Primary Students with Learning Difficulties: Literacy and Numeracy, vol.2, Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Canberra, ACT. Rohl, M. & Milton, M. 2002, `What's happening in Australiafor students with learning difficulties? A survey', AustralianJournal of Language and Literacy, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 25-48. Slavin, R.E., Karweit, N.L., Wasik, B.A., Madden mad��den?v. mad��dened, mad��den��ing, mad��densv.tr.1. To make angry; irritate.2. To drive insane.v.intr.To become infuriated. , N.A., &Dolan, L.J. 1994, `Success for All: A comprehensive approach toprevention and early intervention' in R.E. Slavin, N.L. Karweit,& B.A. Wasik (eds), Preventing early school failure, Allyn andBacon, Boston. Swan, N. 2002, `Reading difficulties--A major heath problem'.Radio National Health Report, 1 April, 2002.http://www.abc.net.au/m/talks/8.30/helthrpt/stories/ s518687.htm US Department of Education 2000, `To assure the free appropriatepublic education of all children with disabilities', Twenty-secondAnnual Report to congress on the implementation of the Individuals withDisabilities Education Act. (http:// www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP) van Kraayenoord, C., Elkins, J. Palmer, Rickards, F., &Colbert, P. 2000, Literacy, Numeracy, and Students with Disabilities,Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Canberra, ACT. Wheldall. K., & Beaman, R. 2000, An Evaluation of MULTILIT:Making up Lost Time in Literacy, Department of Education, Training andYouth Affairs, Canberra, ACT. John Elkins UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND John Elkins is Emeritus e��mer��i��tus?adj.Retired but retaining an honorary title corresponding to that held immediately before retirement: a professor emeritus.n. pl. Professor in the School of Education at theUniversity of Queensland. His interests include learning difficulties,inclusive education, and adolescent literacy Adolescence, the period between age 10 and 19, is a time of rapid psychological and neurological development, during which children develop morally (truly understanding the consequences of their actions), cognitively (problem-solving, reasoning, remembering), and socially (responding to . Address: Schonell Special Education Research Centre, GraduateSchool of Education, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072 Email: j.elkins@mailbox.uq.edu.au