Leadership: does culture matter? Comparative practices between Argentina and United States of America.

Leadership: does culture matter? Comparative practices between Argentina and United States of America. ABSTRACT The topic of leadership in the global marketplace has received ahigh degree of attention among scholars and practitioners over the pastfew years. Leadership of organizations and employees has definitelybecome more important as managing across borders and the advent of thevirtual team has become increasingly prevalent. Paper explores impact ofculture on leadership practices in two countries from culturally andeconomically different regions: Argentina and the United States ofAmerica UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The name of this country. The United States, now thirty-one in number, are Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, . It uses the visionary approach to leadership developed byKouzes and Posner (1987) which identified five leadership practices(actions or behaviors) employed by effective leaders: Challenging theProcess, Inspiring a Shared Vision, Enabling Others to Act, Modeling theWay, and Encouraging the Heart. Using the Kouzes and Posner LPI-Self(Leadership Practices Inventory, 1993) instrument for data collection,the authors compared the results between MBA respondents in the twocountries. The results of the study indicate that a number ofsignificant differences do exist among respondents in the two cultures,with Argentine respondents consistently scoring higher than UnitedStates United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. counterparts. The information may be of value in understandingperceptions concerning leadership patterns between the two countries anduseful in managing human resources The fancy word for "people." The human resources department within an organization, years ago known as the "personnel department," manages the administrative aspects of the employees. in the respective countries. INTRODUCTION One of the most significant business trends of the new millenniumis the emergence of the stateless Refers to software that does not keep track of configuration settings, transaction information or any other data for the next session. When a program "does not maintain state" (is stateless) or when the infrastructure of a system prevents a program from maintaining state, it cannot take corporation and increasinginterdependencies among the world's economies. Until recentlyleaders were able to operate in the relative isolation of domesticmarkets but today leaders are constantly exposed to different cultureswith different lifestyles. This has resulted in the recognition ofdifferent management and leadership practices and a growing need tounderstand the importance of cross-cultural leadership. The understanding of comparative leadership practices amongcultures is paramount to successfully managing global businessactivities. An era of high change characterized by outsourcing,restructuring, technological advances, and economic, social andpolitical transitions require managers who are cognizant of thediffering perceptions that exist across countries concerning leadership.Certainly an understanding of leadership and differences in leadershippractices among cultures leads to increased efficiency and effectivenessin organizational performance. The focus of much leadership research has been on the determinantsof leadership effectiveness (Yukl, 1998). Among these approaches are thetrait approach (Stogdill, 1948, 1974; Bryman, 1992), the style approach(Blake & Mouton moutonlamb pelt made to resemble seal or beaver. , 1964; Kotter, 1982), the situational approach(Hersey & Blanchard, 1977, 1982, 1988; Tannenbaum & Schmidt,1958), the contingency approach (Fiedler, 1964, 1967), the path-goalapproach (Evans 1970; House, 1971), the leadermember exchange approach(Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), and transformational leadership approach(Bass, 1985; Tichy & DeVanna, 1990). In recent years neocharismatictheories like visionary leadership theory (Bennis & Nanus, 1985;Sashkin, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1993) have also gained acceptancewith both scholars and practitioners. In addition, of course, theconcept of leadership in groups and teams has become a rapidly growingarea of leadership interest. There is also mounting evidence thatcultures vary on the extent they employ and value certain leadershipbehaviors (Den Hartog, House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, & Dorfman,1999; Hofstede, 2001; Peterson & Hunt, 1997). House & Iditya(1997) have noted that these theories are all of a common genre and haveseveral common characteristics. This study is cross-cultural in nature, not merely because of theinterest in international comparison per se, but because it is believedthat such comparison is essential to a better understanding ofcomparative leadership practices between the United States andArgentina. This study should help both educational institutions andglobal business organizations more effectively teach students and/ormanage corporate human resources around the globe. In particular, thisstudy provides the management of United States/Argentina-- basedorganizations with valuable information which may be helpful inselecting people to fill key leadership positions. RESEARCH METHOD AND DATA This study uses the neocharismatic, visionary approach toleadership developed by Kouzes and Posner (1993; 1995). The LeadershipPractices Inventory-Self (LPI-Self) instrument (Kouzes & Posner,1993) was used for data collection. Kouzes & Posner have identifiedfive leadership practices (actions and/or behaviors) employed byeffective leaders: Challenging the Process--Leaders search out challengingopportunities and experiment. Inspiring a Shared Vision-- Leaders envision a future and enlistothers to pursue that future. Enabling Others to Act-- Leaders foster collaboration and empowerothers. Modeling the Way-- Leaders set the example and achieve small winsthat build commitment. Encouraging the Heart-- Leaders recognize individual contributionsand celebrate accomplishments regularly. The LPI-Self instrument measures each of the five dimensions ofleadership with 6 statements cast on a five-point Likert scale Likert scaleA subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc . Thehigher value on the five-point scale represents greater use of themeasured leadership behavior. Each leadership practice could be scoredin the range of 6 to 30 points. Extensive testing by Kouzes and Posner(1993) revealed that the instrument exhibits sound psychometric psy��cho��met��rics?n. (used with a sing. verb)The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties. The instrument was administered to 110 MBA students in the UnitedStates (Southeast Missouri State University Missouri State University is a state university located in Springfield, Missouri. It is the state's second largest university in student enrollment, second only to the University of Missouri. From 1972 to 2005, Missouri State was known as Southwest Missouri State University. and Southern IllinoisUniversity-Carbondale) and 160 MBA students in Argentina (Universidad dePalermo). In the United States sample there were 57 males and 53 femalesresponding to the questionnaire. In Argentina there were 107 females and53 males responding to the questionnaire. The respondents represented anumber of different types of employment including manufacturing,financial services The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. , commerce, and not-for-profit. The questionnaireswere administered during classes at each venue. RESULTS Results are analyzed between the two countries (Argentina andUnited States) and within each country. Between the countries resultsare presented as: Aggregate Perceptions of MBA Students in the twocountries (without a gender distinction); Comparison Between all MaleMBA Students and all Female MBA Students (without a countrydistinction); Comparison Between United States Female MBA Students andArgentina Female MBA Students; Comparison Between United States Male MBAStudents and Argentina Male MBA Students; Comparison Between UnitedStates Male MBA Students and Argentina Female MBA Students; and,Comparisons Between Argentina Male MBA Students and United States FemaleMBA Students. The results of the perception of MBA students within each countryare also compared and contrasted: Comparison Between Male and FemaleStudents in United States; Comparison Between Male and Female Studentsin Argentina. Comparison Between United States and Argentina Comparison Between United States MBA Students and Argentina MBAStudents. The LPI-Self scores of MBA students in the United States versus MBAstudents in Argentina definitely varied in the aggregate (See Table 1--5). Significant statistical differences existed on four of the five LPI (Lines Per Inch) The number of lines printed in a vertical inch. (language) LPI - A PL/I interpreter for IBM PCs and workstations.ftp://ftp.wustl.edu/mirrors/msdos/pli/runpli1a.arc.E-mail: <rcg@lpi.liant.com>. dimensions: challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enablingothers to act, and modeling the way; with Argentina respondents ratingthemselves higher than United States respondents in all dimensions.There was no significant difference between United States and Argentinarespondents in Encouraging the Heart. The rank-order for the LPI-self scores also differed between theUnited States and Argentina (See Table 6). Enabling Others to Act wasrated highest in both countries. Modeling the Way was ranked second byArgentina respondents while Encouraging the Heart was ranked second byUnited States respondents. Both United States and Argentina respondentshad Inspiring a Shared Vision ranked last. DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS Recent events in Argentina's history (e.g., economic crisis,lack of political leadership, labor strife, controversy concerningglobalization globalizationProcess by which the experience of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, is becoming standardized around the world. Factors that have contributed to globalization include increasingly sophisticated communications and transportation , free market reforms, devaluation devaluation,decreasing the value of one nation's currency relative to gold or the currencies of other nations. It is usually undertaken as a means of correcting a deficit in the balance of payments. of currency, socialdemonstrations, etc.) may have created a sense of pride and hope in thenation. Argentines, without clear leadership in the nation, may bedetermined to exhibit individual leadership patterns and, as a result,rank themselves higher on the LPI practices. The history of Argentina The of this article or section may be compromised by "weasel words".You can help Wikipedia by removing weasel words.This article is about the history of Argentina. definitely influences leadershipperceptions. Argentina has lived through three periods of politicalpluralism: the constitutional period from 1853; the popular opening ofthe society from 1916 and the return to democracy from 1983. Intolerance and confrontation predominated at all other times(Massuh, in Loizaga, 1995). This history of discord DiscordSee also Confusion.Andrasdemon of discord. [Occultism: Jobes, 93]discord, apple ofcaused conflict among goddesses; Trojan War ultimate result. [Gk. Myth. and rivalries iscurrently being scrutinized, but personalize per��son��al��ize?tr.v. per��son��al��ized, per��son��al��iz��ing, per��son��al��iz��es1. To take (a general remark or characterization) in a personal manner.2. To attribute human or personal qualities to; personify. still exists (Sartori,1989). Sartori believes that in Latin American democracies, people tendto identify with an individual and not a program. Trust is deposited ina prominent individual who can channel popular will. Throughout thehistory of the country, the emergence of protagonists such as Moreno,San Martin, Rivadavia, Rosas, Urquiza, Alberdi, Sarmiento, Roca,Yrigoyen, Peron, Alfonsin and Menem may be explained by fractionalconfrontations which often ended in the death or exile of thecontenders. Goldman and Salvatore (1998) also indicate that during independencestruggles a military career was often the shortest road to leadershipstature. Provincial caudillos gained preeminence pre��em��i��nentor pre-em��i��nent ?adj.Superior to or notable above all others; outstanding. See Synonyms at dominant, noted.[Middle English, from Latin prae . They defended theterritories they ruled firmly and did not submit to the rule of law.This has changed, of course, but the current Argentine presidentialdemocracy still retains unique characteristics of an earlier era--theconcept of control and balance between the branches of government doesnot exist. Rulers see themselves as accountable only to party with noinstitutional accountability towards Congress or the Judiciary. In otherwords Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , the President may disregard the Legislature, pay little attentionto judicial decisions deemed inconvenient, feel free to antagonizethrough use of the media, and use troops to maintain social peace. Cacique ca��cique?n.1. An Indian chief, especially in the Spanish West Indies and other parts of Latin America during colonial and postcolonial times.2. A local political boss in Spain or Latin America. and caudillo caudillo(kôdēl`yō Span. kouthē`yō), [Span.,= military strongman], type of South American political leader that arose with the 19th-century wars of independence. are terms that distinctly express theoverruling o��ver��rule?tr.v. o��ver��ruled, o��ver��rul��ing, o��ver��rules1. a. To disallow the action or arguments of, especially by virtue of higher authority: leadership mode: the cacique leads his people; a caudillotakes over in times of war. To govern and to acaudillar--to rule as acaudillo (i.e., strong man politics)--are never far apart. The leadermanipulates and his vision fascinates the followers. Graumann (1986)also talks about "images that connote con��note?tr.v. con��not��ed, con��not��ing, con��notes1. To suggest or imply in addition to literal meaning: "The term 'liberal arts' connotes a certain elevation above utilitarian concerns"directive leadership." In Argentina, the relationship between the leader the communityresults in a direct and informal content. This may explain why even themost self-contained and austere aus��tere?adj. aus��ter��er, aus��ter��est1. Severe or stern in disposition or appearance; somber and grave: the austere figure of a Puritan minister.2. politicians tend to adopt populist pop��u��list?n.1. A supporter of the rights and power of the people.2. Populist A supporter of the Populist Party.adj.1. tactics and why such a pattern may even extend to the private sphere The private sphere is the complement or opposite of the public sphere. Heidegger argues that it is only in the private sphere that one can be one's authentic self.See also privacy. where the image of the patron--lord of the manor--subsists. Leadership charisma An earlier presentation graphics program for Windows from Micrografx that included a comprehensive media manager for managing large libraries of image, sound and video clips. is also important in Argentina (Leaman, 1999)and executive domination in the political sphere Noun 1. political sphere - a sphere of intense political activitypolitical arenaarena, domain, sphere, orbit, area, field - a particular environment or walk of life; "his social sphere is limited"; "it was a closed area of employment"; "he's out of my orbit" has been common. Anemphasis on charismatic and powerful executive leadership rather than onrepresentative institutions may transfer to perceived leadershippractices in respondents. In other words, a feeling that strongleadership practices must be exhibited may be a characteristic of thepopulace. This may also be related to the concept that being humble is animportant leadership characteristic in the United States (Fineman(1999). Individuals in the United States are often taught to be humblein approach and respectful of others. This may translate into placing alesser self-rating on the LPI dimensions. Argentina is politically and economically a centralized cen��tral��ize?v. cen��tral��ized, cen��tral��iz��ing, cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To draw into or toward a center; consolidate.2. nation.Even the literature holds that the leader manipulates through charisma.Denevi quotes Maranon, a Spanish thinker, as saying that "a goodpolitician should combine lack of scruples, an exaltation of ideas,coolness, obduracy and malice malice,in law, an intentional violation of the law of crimes or torts that injures another person. Malice need not involve a malignant spirit or the definite intent to do harm. " (Denevi, in Loizaga, 1995). As aresult, confrontations tend to persist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move"continue Argentina and it detracts fromobjectivity, balance, and tolerance. Augusto Lopez Carlos, Chief Economist The Chief Economist is a single position job class having primary responsibility for the development, coordination, and production of economic and financial analysis. It is distinguished from the other economist positions by the broader scope of responsibility encompassing the of World Economic Forum, said"Argentina is a mystery." (La Nacion, 2004). Why is Argentinaa mystery? The potential of the country is large--abundant naturalresources and sophisticated human capital. The country is unique inLatin America Latin America,the Spanish-speaking, Portuguese-speaking, and French-speaking countries (except Canada) of North America, South America, Central America, and the West Indies. with Nobel Prize Nobel Prize,award given for outstanding achievement in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, peace, or literature. The awards were established by the will of Alfred Nobel, who left a fund to provide annual prizes in the five areas listed above. award winners in science and peace. Thehigh educational levels have made Argentines cosmopolitan andprogressive. Argentines have outstanding opera houses Opera houses are listed by continent, then by country with the name of the opera house and city; the opera company is sometimes named for clarity. Note: there are many theatres whose name includes the words Opera House , active theatreand entertainment, and demonstrate pride in their cultural tradition.The infrastructure is modern and computer and communicationstechnologies are extensively applied. Argentines often say they"descend from the ships" which illustrates that the primarypopulation is composed of Western Europeans. Contrarily, however, thecountry is listed 78th in Competitiveness--34 positions below the levelachieved in 2001. (La Nacion, 2004). The Gallup Survey (1996) found that60% of respondents think an honest person is not able to be successfulin Argentina. Marcos Aguinis Marcos Aguinis (1935-) is an Argentine writer born in the province of C��rdoba. In 1983, when democracy was reestablished in his country, he was appointed head of the Secretary of Culture. (1995) pointed out the fact that there is atendency among Argentines not to think as a nation--everybody thinks anddefends that segment or portion of society to which they belong. Hefeels the main obstacle to progress is the people themselves. There ishigh resistance to public discipline and social altruism altruism(ăl`trĭz`əm), concept in philosophy and psychology that holds that the interests of others, rather than of the self, can motivate an individual. . Smartness(viveza) is the mental ability to manage the effects of a problemwithout solving it--since the majority of the population follows thispattern, the managers and leaders also behave in this way. There is atendency to live with illusions. Isuani (1998) states that Argentines are rule breakers. Nino (1992)analyzed the link between inefficiency and underdevelopment underdevelopmentan error in x-ray film developing procedure. Causes the production of a flat film with poor contrast; the unexposed background is gray instead of black. in countriesand concluded that "there is a recurring re��cur?intr.v. re��curred, re��cur��ring, re��curs1. To happen, come up, or show up again or repeatedly.2. To return to one's attention or memory.3. To return in thought or discourse. trend in Argentine societyto anomie anomie,a social condition characterized by instability, the breakdown of social norms, institutional disorganization, and a divorce between socially valid goals and available means for achieving them. in general and to illegality in particular." In otherwords, there is a tendency towards the breaking of judicial, moral, andsocial rules. He considered Argentina to be "a country outside thelaw" so far as "the anomic anomic/ano��mic/ (ah-no��mik) lacking a name. a��no��micadj.Socially unstable, alienated, and disorganized.n.A socially unstable, alienated person. factor generates reduced levels ofefficiency and productivity." It is often stated that the Argentine constitution has neverreached the level of being supreme law that drives the behavior of itscitizens. The constitution can be challenged and modified according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. individual desires. As mentioned above, Isuani (1998) concluded that"The Argentine challenges the rules." To create rule changesis a characteristic of both public and private institutions. In fact,some believe there is a new management paradigm that increasesinequality and makes a functioning win-lose social order. According toGantman (1994), the new type of individualism that has emerged is veryclose to "narcissus Narcissus, in the BibleNarcissus(närsĭs`əs), in the New Testament, Roman whose household was partly Christian.Narcissus, in Roman historyNarcissus,d. A.D. ." The ability to manage on the edge of therules and take advantage of privileged information is highly prevalent.Personal interest is placed above national performance and success. Carmelo Barturen (2002), UN representative in Argentina, sustainsthat the concept of nation is a daily referendum. Every moment, eachperson is making sure he is willing to live with others according tocertain terms. "I wouldn't divide patriots from non patriots,but people who respect the law from the ones that do not. That's agood dividing line Noun 1. dividing line - a conceptual separation or distinction; "there is a narrow line between sanity and insanity"demarcation, contrast, linedifferentiation, distinction - a discrimination between things as different and distinct; "it is necessary to for a country based on the Constitution, human rightsand duties. Argentina is always under construction, and it's not amandate from the past but a task." An analysis of the Hofstede dimensions: power distance (PDI PDI Protein Disulfide IsomerasePDI Personal Docente e Investigador (Spanish: Personal Educational and Investigating)PDI Pre Delivery InspectionPDI Professional Development Institute ),uncertainty avoidance (UAI), individualism (IDV IDVintermittent demand ventilation. ), and masculinity masculinity/mas��cu��lin��i��ty/ (mas?ku-lin��i-te) virility; the possession of masculine qualities. mas��cu��lin��i��tyn.1. The quality or condition of being masculine.2. (MAS);also demonstrates that the United States and Argentina differsignificantly (See Table 7). This may also explain the higher scoresrecorded by Argentina respondents versus respondents from the UnitedStates. Argentina, for example, has a high Uncertainty Avoidance Index(i.e., a low level of tolerance for uncertainty). This coupled with thepopulation being predominantly Catholic leads to a belief that there isan absolute truth and the individual possesses that truth. This mayresult in a higher self-rating of success in the leadership practices.Contrarily, in the United States there is much greater tolerance foruncertainty, diversity in religion, and a lesser belief in absolutetruth. Argentina also ranks slightly higher on the power distance indexthan does the United States. Being more tolerant of power distance mayresult in greater glory and respect being placed on executiveleadership. Since the respondents were primarily MBA students, thiselevation in the selfranking of leadership practices may result fromrespondents feelings of being better educated and more likely to befuture leaders Future Leaders is a UK schools-led charitable organisation that aims to widen the pool of talented leaders especially for urban challenging secondary schools. It was founded in March 2006 by Nat Wei, a former founder of Teach First. . In larger power distance cultures, employees also tendto expect more authoritative leadership. Argentina respondents may ratethemselves higher than United States counterparts because it is expectedthat they have a positive image and project stronger performance ratings See benchmark. in the leadership practices. Leadership in Argentina is often understood as supremacy; hegemonyis claimed by many that hold public positions and usually is upheld inconfrontational settings. This leads, of course, to authoritarianbehaviors. Growth crises, which may be considered to be nothing morethat a stage of development in many countries, causes great distress inArgentina. Argentines find it difficult to establish an ongoing team andcohesive society. Alternatives or the creation of options are difficultto institute in Argentina and normally occur only after repeatedupheavals. Power distance is definitely tolerated to a greater degree inArgentina than in the United States. Upper status people in Argentinaexpect to deal only with individuals of their own standing. Decisionmaking is predominantly top-down, spontaneous, impulsive im��pul��siveadj.1. Inclined or tending to act on impulse rather than thought.2. Motivated by or resulting from impulse.im��pul , and with anemphasis on concepts. Lower status people are always cautious and tendnot to put forward ideas (especially conflicting ideas) because supportfrom the superior may change rapidly if challenged. Often times, infact, superiors are not questioned even through it is known they arewrong. As mentioned above, being a traditional Catholic country may alsocontribute to a tolerance for power distance. Catholic countries do notseparate the personal and social spheres of experience. When Catholicismarrived in Latin America, native peoples were associated with demonicforces--priests and conquistadors See alsoconquistador Spanish colonization of the Americas Encomienda : Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y ZAJeronimo de Aliaga Diego de Almagro Pedro de Alvarado came to redeem them. The priests andconquistadors were viewed as mythical myth��i��cal? also myth��icadj.1. Of or existing in myth: the mythical unicorn.2. Imaginary; fictitious.3. heroes sent to chastise chas��tise?tr.v. chas��tised, chas��tis��ing, chas��tis��es1. To punish, as by beating. See Synonyms at punish.2. To criticize severely; rebuke.3. Archaic To purify. andconquer barbarism bar��ba��rism?n.1. An act, trait, or custom characterized by ignorance or crudity.2. a. The use of words, forms, or expressions considered incorrect or unacceptable.b. . Centuries of Spanish domination left its traces.Spain, for example, transferred its institutional systems and peopleconsidered themselves part of the mother country, not colonizers. InLatin America, status was attained by adapting such standards ofbehavior. Economy was based on the manorial lifestyle, where status andprivilege were connected to birth and bloodlines. Profit was based onannuities and loyalty was owed to individuals rather than to laws of theland. Argentines are ethnocentric--proud of their own country more thanof the geographical region. Argentines are also emotionally sensitive.Words and actions may be interpreted as offenses to a person'sinner worth. Argentines often use euphemisms and double entendres. Thereis a tendency to read between the lines to infer something different from what is plainly indicated; to detect the real meaning as distinguished from the apparent meaning.See also: Read and the conclusions drawn areoften extreme. It is common to exhibit an external locus ofcontrol--that decisions and performance are determined by parties beyondone's immediate control. There is a feeling that things happen! Theinfluence of special interests on decision making is expected andcondoned. Argentina is also more collectivist col��lec��tiv��ism?n.The principles or system of ownership and control of the means of production and distribution by the people collectively, usually under the supervision of a government. than the United States. Beingmore collectivist, Argentina has closer ties between individuals than inthe United States. A strong emphasis is placed on personal associations.Networks serve as safety nets and facilitate mobility. When a personneeds something done, there is a preference to rely on someone who isknown. Relationships take precedence over formal contact withinstitutions, laws, or regulations. Due process is often regarded withsuspicion because it could override understandings in the group. Theconcept of time is viewed in the abstract--as a resource that helpsbuild relationships. Time is not considered as a defining event in termsof hours and/or minutes consumed. Argentines tend to be gregarious gre��gar��i��ous?adj.1. Seeking and enjoying the company of others; sociable. See Synonyms at social.2. Tending to move in or form a group with others of the same kind: gregarious bird species. . Visitors are greeted warmly.Personal relationships are established with ease. People maintaineye-to-eye contact and even men embrace with physical demonstrations ofaffection. Relationships, based on reciprocity reciprocityIn international trade, the granting of mutual concessions on tariffs, quotas, or other commercial restrictions. Reciprocity implies that these concessions are neither intended nor expected to be generalized to other countries with which the contracting parties , tend to be informal andstable over time. This may not carry-over to the business sphere,however. Participation is vibrant in most discussions, especially thoseconcerning soccer and politics. Expressiveness and emotion in verbalcommunication are tied to the Argentine concept of individualism.Argentines will often interrupt as an illustration of eagerness to shareopinions. Argumentation is enjoyed and may dilute efforts to reachconcrete goals. The Argentine is strong in the art of eloquence EloquenceAmbrose, St.bees, prophetic of fluency, landed in his mouth. [Christian Hagiog: Brewster, 177]Antony, Markgives famous speech against Caesar’s assassins. [Br. Lit. , wit,and charm and normally feels that no task is above him. The fact that about one-third of the population lives in and aroundBuenos Aires Buenos Aires(bwā`nəs ī`rēz, âr`ēz, Span. bwā`nōs ī`rās), city and federal district (1991 pop. also provides a very homogenous homogenous - homogeneous group. This may lead to ahigher perceived performance on the various leadership practices. There are some universal leadership similarities regardless ofcountry or culture. Most leaders, for example, desire to be moreproactive and tend to desire loose authority structures and greaterautonomy in making decisions (Rodrigues, 2001). In most cases, however,the rational boundaries one finds do result in differences in leadershippatterns. Differences in perceived ratings among the respondents in theUnited States and Argentina may also be the result of the United Statesbeing a low context culture and Argentina being a high context culture.In high-context cultures participants are likely to establish socialtrust first, value personal relations and goodwill, make agreements onthe basis of general trust, and like to conduct slower and moreritualistic rit��u��al��is��tic?adj.1. Relating to ritual or ritualism.2. Advocating or practicing ritual.rit business negotiations (Rodrigues, 2001). By contrast, inlow-contact cultures participants get down to business quickly, valueexpertise and performance, like agreements by legalistic le��gal��ism?n.1. Strict, literal adherence to the law or to a particular code, as of religion or morality.2. A legal word, expression, or rule. contract, andlike to conduct business negotiations as efficiently as possible(Rodrigues, 2001). It may be that high-context cultures have a tendencyto develop better individual perceptions concerning the practice ofexemplary leadership. Trompenaars (1994) also reported that the United States andArgentina differ on Universalism UniversalismBelief in the salvation of all souls. Arising as early as the time of Origen and at various points in Christian history, the concept became an organized movement in North America in the mid-18th century. (belief that ideas and practices can beapplied without modification around the world) versus Particularism par��tic��u��lar��ism?n.1. Exclusive adherence to, dedication to, or interest in one's own group, party, sect, or nation.2. (belief that circumstances determine how ideas and practices can beapplied and, as a result, practices cannot be conducted the sameeverywhere). The United States is high on universalism while Argentinatends toward the particularism end of the continuum. Graciela Romer This page is about the cartographic mechanism called a "Romer" or "Roamer"; for people named Romer see Romer (surname)A Romer or Roamer is a simple device for accurately plotting a grid reference on a map. (2003) thinks that the importance of particularism is one of thedifferences between developed and underdeveloped un��der��de��vel��opedadj.Not adequately or normally developed; immature. countries. The prioritygiven to family and blood relationship is not positive in terms ofobjectivity and universalism. It tends to stress personal loyalty overnormative loyalty. This is not good if one desires to build a democraticsystem on the bases of law and tolerance. Trompenaars shows a similarresult between the United States and Argentina on the Specific(individuals have a large public space they share with others and aprivate space they only share with close acquaintances) versus Diffuse(both public and private are guarded because entry into public spacealso permits entry into private space). According to Trampenaars, theUnited States is a specific culture while Argentina tends to be adiffuse culture. In the United States people may rate themselves loweron the LPI dimensions since this correlates with openness, extroversion extroversion/ex��tro��ver��sion/ (eks?tro-ver��zhun)1. a turning inside out.2. direction of one's energies and attention outward from the self. ,and a strong separation of work and private life. A lower LPI score maybe expected. In contrast, a diffuse culture finds individuals to be moreindirect, introverted in��tro��vert��edadj.Marked by interest in or preoccupation with oneself or one's own thoughts as opposed to others or the environment. , and work and private life are closely linked. Ahigher LPI score may be expected. The Argentine citizen does not identify with the state and theUnited States citizen does identify with the state. This may be anotherfactor contributing to differences in perceived leadership perceptions.To the Argentine, the state is an unconceivable un��con��ceiv��a��ble?adj.Inconceivable: unconceivable beauty.un abstraction--theArgentine is an individual and not a citizen. That the state representsthe reality of a moral idea might sound like a sinister joke to theArgentina citizen. To the Argentine, the state is impersonal. TheArgentine perceives only personal relations! That's why stealingpublic money, for example, is often viewed as not being a crime. CarlosArtschul (1992) states that in resource rich countries distant fromprimary world traffic, persons develop individualist in��di��vid��u��al��ist?n.1. One that asserts individuality by independence of thought and action.2. An advocate of individualism.in behaviors andattitudes, which results in funneling resources into short termprojects. "Argentineans are part of the most individualistictradition. For the Argentinian individual, the other is always conceivedas an annoyance; hence it becomes an enemy, blocking negotiationaccess." Therefore, negotiation becomes an imposition exclusivelyfor the Argentineans own benefit. Thus, he develops skills to workcreatively in chaos, but has difficulties in working as part of a teamor in long term associations. Comparison Between All Male MBA Students and All Female MBAStudents The LPI-self scores of female students was significantly higherthan male students on the dimensions of Inspiring a Shared Vision,Enabling others to Act, and Encouraging the Heart. There was nostatistically significant difference between males and females on thedimensions of Challenging the Process or Modeling the Way (althoughwomen respondents did score higher than men on these practices). SeeTables 8 through 12. This result is in line with previous findings (primarily UnitedStates based research) which states that females use more democraticleadership styles, encourage greater degrees of participation, and aremore willing to share power and enhance the self-worth of others (Early& Johnson, 1990). Kouzes & Posner (1993) also found significantdifferences between men and women for the practice of Encouraging theHeart. Enabling Others to Act was not significant, although in the rightdirection with women scoring higher than men. Kouzes and Posner alsofound differences in the practice of Modeling the Way, with womenscoring significantly higher than men. Business Week (November 20, 2000) also reported that womenexecutives are judged as being more effective than their malecounterparts in motivating others, fostering communication, producinghigh-quality work, and listening to others. All of these practices arestrongly related to Inspiring a Shared Vision, Enabling Others to Act,and Encouraging the Heart. Comparison Between United States Female MBA Students and ArgentinaFemale MBA Students. The LPI-self scores of female MBA students in the United States andfemale MBA students in Argentina illustrate that scores of womenstudents from Argentina were significantly higher on the dimensions ofChallenging the Process, Inspiring a Shared Vision, and Enabling othersto Act. There was not a significant difference in the practice ofModeling the Way. United States female students scored higher thanArgentina females on Encouraging the Heart (although the difference wasnot statistically significant). See Tables 13 through 17 for analysis. The reasons for Argentina women scoring themselves higher thanUnited States women on all dimensions except Encouraging the Heart maybe explained by the differences in national culture which were discussedunder section 1.1.1. Comparison Between United States Male MBA Students and ArgentinaMale MBA Students. The LPI--Self scores of Male MBA students in Argentina weresignificantly higher than male MBA students in the United States on alldimensionsBChallenging the Process, Inspiring a Shared Vision, EnablingOthers to Act, Modeling the Way and Encouraging the Heart. See Tables 18through 22 for an illustration of the differences. The higher scores on all leadership practice dimensions was asurprise to the authors (especially the degree of difference in therankings). Reasons which may account for Argentina male studentsconsistently scoring higher on this dimension were previously discussedunder section 1.1.1. Comparison Between United States Male MBA Students and ArgentinaFemale MBA Students. It is interesting to note that Argentina females also scoredsignificantly higher on all LPI-self dimensions than United Statesmales. The absolute mean differences were approximately the same asevidenced between Argentina males and United States males. See Table 23for a comparison and ranking of the leadership practice differentialsbetween United States males and Argentina females. Although the mean scores between United States Males and ArgentinaFemales were wide and significant, the rankings of the dimensions wassimilar with both genders scoring highest on Enabling Others to Act andlowest on Inspiring a Shared Vision. Argentina female respondentsdefinitely perceive themselves as performing on all leadershippractices. Perhaps Argentine women view themselves (especially in thissample) as being more educated, more ambitious, and possessing greaterleadership potential than others in the study. Maria Jose Lubertino (2000) stated that although Argentine womenproduce 60 percent of the goods and services In economics, economic output is divided into physical goods and intangible services. Consumption of goods and services is assumed to produce utility (unless the "good" is a "bad"). It is often used when referring to a Goods and Services Tax. , they only receive 40percent of the remuneration. Men, on average, are paid 30 percent morethan women. It also reported, however, that in 1994 the NationalConstitution guaranteed equality between men and women and thatArgentina has institutionalized in��sti��tu��tion��al��ize?tr.v. in��sti��tu��tion��al��ized, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��ing, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��es1. a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to.b. policies to achieve gender equity. Inthe Argentina Chamber of Deputies, women hold approximately 27 percentof the seats. There are, however, only two women among the 72 senators.Women do make up 30% of all those running for office in recentelections. Perhaps the Argentine women of this new century see a changecoming and this is reflected in their leadership practices scores. Comparisons Between Argentina Male MBA Students and United StatesFemale MBA Students. Argentina males scored significantly higher than United Stateswomen on the dimensions of Challenging the Process, Inspiring a SharedVision, and Enabling Others to Act (See Tables 24, 25 and 26). They alsoscored higher than United States Females on Modeling the Way, althoughthe difference was not statistically significant (See Table 27).American women scored higher than Argentina males on the Encouraging theHeart Dimension, but, once again, the difference was not statisticallysignificant (See Table 28). Women seem to universally score higher than males on the leadershippractice of Encouraging the Heart. This may be attributed to the femaletendency to value quality of life values, relationships, and nurturingbehavior more than men. Another reason may stem from women=s traditionalroles as mother and homemaker where encouraging children and fosteringrelationshipbehavior is very important. Higher scores from male Argentina respondents on the remainder ofthe dimensions were not unexpected and may be explained by the reasonsenumerated This term is often used in law as equivalent to mentioned specifically, designated, or expressly named or granted; as in speaking of enumerated governmental powers, items of property, or articles in a tariff schedule. in section 1.1.1 of this paper. Comparison Within the United States and Argentina Comparison Within the United States Between Male and Female MBAStudents. The LPI-Self scores between United States males and United Statesfemales revealed two statistically significant differences (See Tables29 through 33). Women respondents reported engaging in the dimensions ofEnabling Others to Act and Encouraging the Heart behavior moresignificantly than did their male counterparts. Challenging the Process,Inspiring a Shared Vision, and Modeling the Way were not significantlydifferent for males and females. These differences would be supported, for example, by the Griggs(1989) study which states (among other things) that women tend to viewpower in relational terms and as something to be shared and do spendmore time than men in building supportive work environments. Comparison Within Argentina Between Male and Female MBA Students. No significant differences existed between Argentina Males andFemales concerning perceived behavior on any of the leadershippractices. In fact, the recorded scores were almost identical on each ofthe dimensions (See Table 34). It is interesting to note that bothgenders self-ranked their best practice as Enabling Others to Act andtheir worst practice as Inspiring a Shared Vision. The remainder of thescores are so close that a ranking is not really relevant. The authors were slightly surprised by the equality of LPI scoresby gender. As mentioned previously, gender equality may be viewed as areality in Argentina. Gender discrimination has been discouraged andpromoting women equality has been institutionalized. This phenomenon,however, may be more prevalent in Buenos Aires than in the provinceswhere specific plans to incorporate the concept of gender in publicpolicy are practiced to a lesser degree (Lubertino, 2000). CONCLUSIONS In a rapidly changing and volatile world, leadership plays a majorrole in our work place, our schools, and it many other areas of ourlives. All research which helps people enhance their understanding ofleadership, whether it be an individual situation or a global situation,is beneficial. In brief, some of the major conclusions of this study arethe following: 1. In the aggregate, the LPI-Self scores of MBA students in theUnited States versus Argentina varied significantly with Argentinarespondents rating themselves higher than United States respondents onfour of the five dimensions: Challenging the Process, Inspiring a SharedVision, Enabling Others to Act, and Modeling the Way. The authors conducted this comparative study with a majorpresumption that there may be significant differences between the MBArespondents of the two countries. The five dimensions of the behavior ofeffective leaders as defined by Kouzes and Posner can be betterunderstood within the whole range of values indigenous to a givenculture. Cultural values shape and mold the workers as well as theleaders' perceptual framework. In addition, Hofstede (1984) assertsthat people carry mental programs which are developed in the family andin early childhood and reinforced in schools and organizations, and thatthese mental programs contain components of national culture. Theauthors were surprised by the size and range of differences betweenArgentina and United States respondents in this study. Although thisstudy did not examine the impact of various leadership practices onperformance, one can make the statement that leaders from culturallydifferent countries use many leadership practices in similar ways andwith similar frequency. This at least suggests that all view thesepractices as effective. The perceptions of the extent to which oneengages in these practices, however, can vary significantly from cultureto culture. Some of the proposed reasons for differences in perceptionsbetween United States and Argentina respondents were addressed inSection 1.1.1. 2. In the aggregate, LPI-Self scores of male MBA students versusFemale MBA students showed females scoring higher than males on three ofthe five dimensions: Inspiring a Shared Vision, Enabling Others to Act,and Encouraging the Heart. 3. LPI-Self scores of women MBA students from Argentine wassignificantly higher than those of United States women on the dimensionsof Challenging the Process, Inspiring a Shared Vision, and EnablingOthers to Act. United States women scored higher on Encouraging theHeart (although the difference was not statistically significant). 4. LPI-Self scores of male MBA students in Argentina weresignificantly higher than male MBA students in the United States on alldimensions. 5. LPI-Self scores of female MBA students in Argentina weresignificantly higher than male MBA students in the United States on alldimensions. 6. LPI-Self scores of male MBA students in Argentine weresignificantly higher than female MBA students in the United States onthe dimensions of Challenging the Process, Inspiring a Shared Vision,and Enabling Others to Act. United States women scored higher thanArgentine males on Encouraging the Heart (although the difference wasnot statistically significant). 7. Women MBA students in the United States scored significantlyhigher on the leadership practices of Enabling Others to Act andEncouraging the Heart than did men MBA students in the United States. 8. No significant differences existed between Argentina Males andFemales concerning perceived behavior on any of the leadershippractices. One basic limitation of the study is that only self-reported andself-perceived behavior in reference to each leadership practice wasmeasured, not actual performance in the workplace. There definitelycould be a difference between reported and actual leadership practiced(a social desirability bias Social desirability bias is the inclination to present oneself in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. Being by nature social creatures, people are generally inclined to seek some degree of social acceptance, and as with other psychological terms, "social desirability" ). If this bias varies across cultures, itcan have a direct influence on the results of the study. Cultural and institutional frameworks differ considerably among thetwo countries of the United States and Argentina. Some of theseleadership practices may be culturally contingent and not universallypracticed. Lastly, additional research needs to be concluded with abroader-based population of respondents, representing different agegroups, different educational backgrounds, different organizationaltypes, and different regions of the respective countries. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS Leadership behavior can be changed and is a learnable behavior. Thestudy of leadership practices is valuable to all organizations and allcultures. Education and training concerning the similarities anddissimilarities in leadership practices is valuable for all countriesengaged in global business. Differences in leadership practices maydictate the amount of time, energy, and cost commitments necessary foreducational training and development programs. There are numerous management implications that flow from thiscomparative leadership study. Among these implications are thefollowing: 1. An analysis of leadership feedback presents an opportunity toengage in conversation with groups (both within organizations and acrosscultures) concerning the importance of being different and practicingdiversity. It should provide a preliminary indication of what leadershippractices need to be improved within each individual, work unit andorganization. 2. Leadership feedback creates a cross-cultural discussionconcerning the nature of different leadership practices and improvesunderstanding of the leadership quotient quotient - The number obtained by dividing one number (the "numerator") by another (the "denominator"). If both numbers are rational then the result will also be rational. in organizational success. 3. Developing an awareness of international leadership differencesis an excellent place to begin an analysis of leadership strengths andweaknesses within organizations and across country clusters. Anunderstanding of cross-cultural leadership differences should help indiscussions concerning motivational approaches used with employees; thelevel of organizational performance attained; the use of expatriates,country locals, or third-country personnel in the host country; as wellas global controls and the type of structure necessary for globalgovernance Global governance refers to political interaction and the creation and empowering of international organizations aimed at solving problems that affect more than one state or region, when there is no democratic power of enforcing compliance. . 4. Perceived differences in leadership practices between men andwomen are important in implementing efficient and effective work units(both within organizations and across cultures). The question: Doesgender matter? It is important to all students of leadership. ElisaCarrio (2003) recently stated that Argentina is "a country thatrealizes about the present when it is past." In other words, thecountry does not see "different things when they are happening butwhen they have happened." The gap between reality and consciousnessis equivalent to admitting that one lives in the past. By beingreactive, Argentina has been unable to be creative and drive actionstoward the future. To change the paradigm, it will be necessary to beproactive in order to think in terms of a future vision and mission. According to a recent survey, Romer Graciela (2003) identifiedseveral values which Argentines said needed improvement if the countrywas to significantly change (See Table 35). This survey definitely illustrates the struggle between individualand common values. In Argentina there is a tension between objectivityand subjectivity, and, even nowadays, over the issue of reality. In thissurvey, the values of honesty, education, patriotism or nationalfeeling, workeffortsacrifice, management capacity and leadership, andsolidarity are deemed most needed. Interestingly, the values offirst-world countries tend to be respect for moral, social and legalorder, responsibility and tolerance, and the entrepreneurial spirit.These are of lesser importance on the Argentine list! Currently, after twenty-years of democracy with the governmentcommitted to low inflation and a free economy characterized by opentrade, Argentina does show change. In the cities, people are in a hurryand remain active throughout long hours of the day. However, a feelingof loss of privacy and control of their personal destiny prevails. Afterthe radical free marketers introduced their normative structures, theincome gap has widened. A percentage of Argentines definitely benefited.Cities have been modernized and tourism has grown, but the middle classis definitely pauperized as the expected trickle-down effects offree-market economics has not occurred. Civilian governments have notfound an equitable balance between democracy and efficiency.Organizations have become more rigid rather than more flexible. Courtshave been ineffective and corrupt and street violence has increased. Theinability to develop a competitive strategy has produced stagnation StagnationA period of little or no growth in the economy. Economic growth of less than 2-3% is considered stagnation. Sometimes used to describe low trading volume or inactive trading in securities.Notes:A good example of stagnation was the U.S. economy in the 1970s. andfrustration with a large segment of the populace. Unfortunately,pessimism pessimism,philosophical opinion or doctrine that evil predominates over good; the opposite of optimism. Systematic forms of pessimism may be found in philosophy and religion. has ensured and many immigrate im��mi��grate?v. im��mi��grat��ed, im��mi��grat��ing, im��mi��gratesv.intr.To enter and settle in a country or region to which one is not native. See Usage Note at migrate.v.tr. : they "return to theships." Another recent survey conducted by Austral University Austral University (in Spanish, Universidad Austral) is a for-profit private university in Argentina, based in Buenos Aires and with seats in Pilar (Buenos Aires Province), and Rosario (Santa Fe). (2004)identified that while 62% of the students believe they will improvetheir position in five years time, only 38% think the country will doso. This means that future leaders, professionals and scientists ofArgentina conceive their future separate from that of their country.This conclusion defines the history of the Argentinean identity--asociety whose individuals are bound to save themselves alone, with nosolidarity skills, just personal deliverance DeliveranceSee also Freedom.Aphesiusepithet of Zeus, meaning ‘releaser.’ [Gk. Myth.: Zimmerman, 292–293]Bolivar, Simón(1783–1830) the great liberator of South America. [Am. Hist. . The result of thisinvestigation reveals that somehow the Argentinian context may encouragea greater development of personal and individual leadership than theUSA. This does not imply, however, that the Argentinean experience leadsto identity in a collective or social context. 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Stanley Stough, Southeast Missouri State UniversityTABLE 1: Challenging the Process--Aggregate Argentina United StatesMean 10.33014937 21.95454545Variance 10.33014937 11.78690575Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 10.92263611Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 5.622899154P(T<=t) one-tail 2.36E-08t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 4.71E-08t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 2: Inspiring a Shared Vision-Aggregate Argentina United StatesMean 23.525 20.54545455Variance 12.80440252 17.68140117Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 14.78795794Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 6.255620061P(T<=t) one-tail 7.79E-10t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 1.56E-09t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 3: Enabling Others to Act--Aggregate Argentina United StatesMean 25.20625 23.56363636Variance 7.787382075 7.881234362Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 7.825553341Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 4.740807789P(T<=t) one-tail 1.73E-06t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 3.46E-06t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 4: Modeling the Way--Aggregate Argentina United StatesMean 24.28125 23.02727273Variance 10.53046384 45.43961635Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 24.7285893Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 2.035937522P(T<=t) one-tail 2.14E-02t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 4.27E-02t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 5: Encouraging the Heart--Aggregate Argentina United StatesMean 24.1125 23.43636364Variance 10.84261006 15.23903253Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 12.63070726Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 1.536013068P(T<=t) one-tail 6.29E-02t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 1.26E-01t Critical two-tail 1.968855941Table 6: Ranking Comparisons Between United States and ArgentinaLeadership United States ArgentinaPractice Mean Rank Mean RankChallenging the Process 21.95 4 24.26 3Inspiring a Shared Vision 20.54 5 23.52 5Enabling Others to Act 23.56 1 25.21 1Modeling the Way 23.03 3 24.28 2Encouraging the Heart 23.44 2 24.11 4Table 7: Hofstede' s Country Culture Scores forUnited States and ArgentinaCountry PDI IDV MAS UAIUnited States 40 * 91 62 46Argentina 49 * 46 56 86* Near the line that divides the two extremes of LG and SMTABLE 8: Challenging the Process--Male vs. Female Female MaleMean 23.56875 22.95454545Variance 13.08958333 10.70433695Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 12.11946447Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 1.424445256P(T<=t) one-tail 0.077740495t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 0.155480991t Critical two-tail 0.155480991TABLE 9: Inspiring a Shared Vision--Male vs. Female Female MaleMean 22.76875 21.64545455Variance 16.09084119 17.44195163Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 16.64035999Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 2.223243824P(T<=t) one-tail 0.013516753t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 0.027033506t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 10: Enabling Others to Act--Male vs. Female Female MaleMean 24.86875 24.05454545Variance 8.10216195 8.639199333Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 8.32058387Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 2.27893046P(T<=t) one-tail 0.011728972t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 0.023457944t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 11: Modeling the Way--Male vs. Female Female MaleMean 24.19375 23.15454545Variance 35.69178459 9.030942452Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 24.84838238Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 1.68316398P(T<=t) one-tail 0.046753919t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 0.093507839t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 12: Encouraging the Heart--Male vs. Female Female MaleMean 24.35625 23.08181818Variance 12.58297956 12.00241868Observations 160 110Pooled Variance 12.34685592Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 268t Stat 2.928281795P(T<=t) one-tail 0.001850664t Critical one tail 1.65056008P(T<=t) two-tail 0.003701329t Critical two-tail 1.968855941TABLE 13: Challenging the Process--Female Argentina United StatesMean 24.35514019 21.98113208Variance 11.7972139 12.13425254Observations 107 53Pooled Variance 11.90813801Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 158t Stat 4.095718514P(T<=t) one-tail 3.35E-05t Critical one tail 1.654555035P(T<=t) two-tail 6.70E-05t Critical two-tailTABLE 14: Inspiring a Shared Vision--Female Argentina United StatesMean 23.61682243 21.05660377Variance 13.76688415 16.66981132Observations 107 53Pooled Variance 14.7222779Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 158t Stat 3.972458644P(T<=t) one-tail 5.39E-05t Critical one tail 1.654555035P(T<=t) two-tail 1.08E-04t Critical two-tail 1.975090527TABLE 15: Enabling Others to Act--Female Argentina United StatesMean 25.20560748 21.05660377Variance 8.542232411 16.66981132Observations 107 53Pooled Variance 11.2171318Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 158t Stat 7.375182023P(T<=t) one-tail 4.35E-12t Critical one tail 1.654555035P(T<=t) two-tail 8.71E-12t Critical two-tail 1.975090527TABLE 16: Modeling the Way--Female Argentina United StatesMean 24.27102804 24.03773585Variance 12.2560395 84.11393324Observations 107 53Pooled Variance 35.90547288Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 158t Stat 0.231787336P(T<=t) one-tail 4.09E-01t Critical one tail 1.654555035P(T<=t) two-tail 8.17E-01t Critical two-tail 1.975090527TABLE 17: Encouraging the Heart--Female Argentina United StatesMean 24.14953271 24.77358491Variance 10.99629695 15.79390421Observations 107 53Pooled Variance 12.5752563Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 158t Stat -1.047688857P(T<=t) one-tail 1.48E-01t Critical one tail 1.654555035P(T<=t) two-tail 2.96E-01t Critical two-tail 1.975090527TABLE 18: Challenging the Process--Male Argentina United StatesMean 24.05660377 21.92982456Variance 7.477503628 11.6735589Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 9.65323599Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 3.58727743P(T<=t) one-tail 0.000251812t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.000503625t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 19: Inspiring a Shared Vision--Male Argentina United StatesMean 23.33962264 20.07017544Variance 11.03628447 18.45927318Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 14.88524158Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 4.440945105P(T<=t) one-tail 1.09E-05t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 2.17E-05t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 20: Enabling Others to Act--Male Argentina United StatesMean 25.20754717 22.98245614Variance 6.398403483 8.446115288Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 7.460179975Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 4.269255538P(T<=t) one-tail 2.11E-05t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 4.23E-05t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 21: Modeling the Way--Male Argentina United StatesMean 24.30188679 22.0877193Variance 7.214804064 8.474310777Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 7.867881619Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 4.136762447P(T<=t) one-tail 3.49665E-05t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 6.9933E-05t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 22: Encouraging the Heart--Male Argentina United StatesMean 24.03773585 22.19298246Variance 10.72931785 11.72994987Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 11.24816409Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 2.88254779P(T<=t) one-tail 0.002380304t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.0047960609t Critical two-tail 1.982170943Table 23: Comparisons Between United States Males and ArgentinaFemales United States--M Argentina--FLeadershipPractice Mean Rank Mean RankChallenging the Process 21.93 4 24.35 2Inspiring a Shared Vision 20.07 5 23.62 5Enabling Others to Act 22.98 1 25.20 1Modeling the Way 22.09 3 24.27 3Encouraging the Heart 22.19 2 24.15 4TABLE 24: Comparison of Argentina Males to United States Females Challenging the Process U.S. Females Argentina MalesMean 21.98113208 24.05660377Variance 12.13425254 7.477503628Observations 53 53Pooled Variance 9.805878084Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 104t Stat -3.411901681P(T<=t) one-tail 0.000460011t Critical one tail 1.659636837P(T<=t) two-tail 0.000920022t Critical two-tail 1.983034963TABLE 25: Comparison of Argentina Males to United States Females Inspiring a Shared Vision U.S. Females Argentina MalesMean 21.05660377 23.33962264Variance 16.66981132 11.03628447Observations 53 53Pooled Variance 13.8530479Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 104t Stat -3.157619314P(T<=t) one-tail 0.001040995t Critical one tail 1.659636837P(T<=t) two-tail 0.002081991t Critical two-tail 1.983034963TABLE 26: Comparison of Argentina Males to United States Females Enabling Others to Act U.S. Females Argentina MalesMean 24.18867925 25.20754717Variance 6.656023222 6.398403483Observations 53 53Pooled Variance 6.527213353Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 104t Stat -2.052943149P(T<=t) one-tail 0.021294161t Critical one tail 1.659636837P(T<=t) two-tail 0.042588322t Critical two-tail 1.983034963TABLE 27: Comparison of Argentina Males to United States Females Modeling the Way U.S. Females Argentina MalesMean 24.03773585 24.30188679Variance 84.11393324 7.214804064Observations 53 53Pooled Variance 45.66436865Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 104t Stat -0.201227056P(T<=t) one-tail 0.420457037t Critical one tail 1.659636837P(T<=t) two-tail 0.840914075t Critical two-tail 1.983034963TABLE 28: Comparison of Argentina Males to United States Females Encouraging the Heart U.S. Females Argentina MalesMean 24.77358491 24.03773585Variance 15.79390421 10.72931785Observations 53 53Pooled Variance 13.26161103Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 104t Stat 1.040192053P(T<=t) one-tail 0.150331446t Critical one tail 1.659636837P(T<=t) two-tail 0.300662891t Critical two-tail 1.983034963TABLE 29: Challenging the Process--United States U.S. Females U.S. MalesMean 21.98113208 21.92982456Variance 12.13425254 11.6735589Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 11.89537435Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 0.077959839P(T<=t) one-tail 0.469002127t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.938004253t Critical two-tailTABLE 30: Inspiring a Shared Vision--United States U.S. Females U.S. MalesMean 21.05660377 20.07017544Variance 16.66981132 18.45927318Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 17.59768043Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 1.232301126P(T<=t) one-tail 0.110256328t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.220512655t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 31: Enabling Others to Act--United States U.S. Females U.S. MalesMean 24.18867925 22.98245614Variance 6.656023222 8.446115288Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 7.584219108Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 2.295362211P(T<=t) one-tail 0.011822128t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.023644256t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 32: Modeling the Way--United States U.S. Females U.S. MalesMean 24.03773585 22.0877193Variance 84.11393324 8.474310777Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 44.89338826Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 1.525197643P(T<=t) one-tail 0.065066473t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.130132946t Critical two-tail 1.982170943TABLE 33: Encouraging the Heart--United States U.S. Females U.S. MalesMean 24.77358491 22.19298246Variance 15.79390421 11.72994987Observations 53 57Pooled Variance 13.68666863Hypothesized Mean Difference 0df 108t Stat 3.655537546P(T<=t) one-tail 0.000199054t Critical one tail 1.659086593P(T<=t) two-tail 0.000398107t Critical two-tail 1.982170943Table 34: Argentina Males Compared to Argentina Females Male FemaleLeadershipPractice Mean Rank Mean RankChallenging the Process 24.06 3 24.35 2Inspiring a Shared Vision 23.34 5 23.62 5Enabling Others to Act 25.21 1 25.21 1Modeling the Way 24.30 2 24.27 3Encouraging the Heart 24.04 4 24.15 4Table 35: Values Which Need ImprovementItem Percent Naming ItemHonesty 56%Education 34%Patriotism 21%Labor--Effort--Sacrifice 21%Leadership & Management Capacity 19%Solidarity 15%Respect of Law & Social Rules 14%Responsibility 7%Change Disposition 5%Tolerance 4%Entrepreneurship Spirit 2%Source: Romer Graciela & Asociados. Buenos Aires. October 2003.