Late glacial prehistory of central and southern Portugal.

Late glacial prehistory of central and southern Portugal. Very little is known of the Upper Palaeolithic of Portugal, althoughit has been assumed to have the same general characteristics aselsewhere in southwestern Europe. New evidence suggests cleartechnological distinctions between Portugal and other areas ofsouthwestern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. , c. 18,000(uncalibrated) years ago, and allows an initial synthesis for PortugueseLate Glacial prehistory, 16,000-8500 b.p.IntroductionWestern Europe saw important transformations in hunter-gathererlifeways after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM LGM Last Glacial MaximumLGM Little Green Men (Astronomical: first used as the designation for pulsars)LGM Lembaga Getah Malaysia (Malay: Malaysian Rubber Board)LGM The Lone Gunmen ). Among these changes,faster and more significant after the Holocene began, are the lack of abifacial lithic technology such as that of the Solutrean, an increase inmicrolithic mi��cro��lith?n. ArchaeologyA very small blade made of flaked stone and used as a tool, especially in the European Mesolithic Period.mi point production and more diverse and complex lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" assemblages (Audouze 1987; Burdukiewicz 1986; Campbell 1986; Straus1986a; 1986b). Along with these lithic changes, new hunting techniques(Straus 1987) and economic systems exploiting a larger range of animalsand plants (Clark & Straus 1986) were developed. Thesetransformations were, sometimes, directly or indirectly caused byenvironmental changes. Rising sea level and increased global temperaturealtered river valleys and lacustrine la��cus��trine?adj.1. Of or relating to lakes.2. Living or growing in or along the edges of lakes.[French or Italian lacustre (from Latin lacus, lake) + environments, introducing animalsand plants as well as expanding and contracting their range. Though, ina certain way, similar in all western Europe, these changes were neitheruniform nor contemporaneous across the region. After the LGM, centraland southern Portugal, and most likely southern Spain, felt a faster andearlier palaeoenvironmental transformation than northern Iberia orFrance.New data on palaeoenvironment and tardiglacial Portuguese prehistoryshow significant differences between Portugal and the traditional coreareas of western Europe. This paper is based on recent analysis by thisauthor of material from the Bocas rock-shelter and from the Estremaduraproject (directed by Drs Marks and Zilhao), as well as other publishedmaterial.The 1993 radiocarbon calibration extends the period wheredeterminations can be calibrated back to the LGM; but here, uncalibrateddeterminations in years 'b.p.' are used, as has beencustomary.Brief history of Portuguese The Portuguese language developed in the Western Iberian Peninsula from Latin brought there by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century BC. It began to diverge from other Romance languages after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions in the Palaeolithic archaeologyResearch on the Palaeolithic period began early in Portugal. Caveexcavations carried out in 1866 by the National Geological Survey(created in 1848; Zilhao in press a) were directed by the geologistsCarlos Ribeiro and Joaquim Filipe Nery Delgado, participants in themajor 19th-century debate over eoliths and Tertiary humans (Grayson1986). They were also, without knowing it, pioneers in work on siteformation processes and taphonomic problems (Zilhao in press b). Despitethese promising independent origins, Portuguese Palaeolithic researchhas, since then, been strongly influenced by French research.In 1918, Abbe Breuil published a paper in a Portuguese journaldescribing Palaeolithic finds from the Lisbon peninsula, pointing outthe similarities with the French Palaeolithic. Twenty years later,Breuil returned to Portugal to expand his first 'Impressions',and survey fluvial flu��vi��al?adj.1. Of, relating to, or inhabiting a river or stream.2. Produced by the action of a river or stream.[Middle English, from Latin and coastal Pleistocene terraces with GeorgesZbyszewski (Breuil & Zbyszewski 1942; 1945). They found large rivervalleys, as well as coastal cliffs, very rich in Palaeolithic artefacts.Naturally, the lithic artefacts were divided following the Frenchchrono-cultural classification of Breuil (1912).During some 20 years, beginning in the late 1930s, Manuel Heleno,director of the National Museum of Archaeology, excavated in the RioMaior (inland) and Torres Vedras (coastal area north of Tagus river)areas of the Portuguese Estremadura. Unfortunately, these excavationsdid not follow modern procedures. Entire sites were excavated in longtrenches with very poor vertical control. The results were not publishedbeyond a few short notes labelling the assemblages by Breuil'sclassification (Heleno 1944; 1956; cf. Zilhao 1985), which brought'Aurignacian', 'Gravettian', 'Solutrean'and 'Magdalenian' into the Portuguese Palaeolithic. Heleno wasnot an archaeologist, but an historian interested only in establishingthe antiquity and background of the 'Portuguese nation'. LikeBreuil, he saw type-fossils as indicative of whole industries. As aconsequence, he assigned wrong classifications to some assemblages(Zilhao 1985; 1987).In the decade after Heleno's 1956 note, Jean Roche beganresearch on the Portuguese Palaeolithic (Roche 1964; 1979; 1982).Breuil's classification was again used to identify lithicassemblages from various cave and open-air sites, and again,re-evaluation of cultural attributions has proved some wrong (Zilhao1987; 1988).Recent work by Zilhao and Araujo has greatly advanced the study ofthe Final Upper Palaeolithic and early Mesolithic. They have studiedtardi-glacial and early Holocene sites (Araujo in press; Araujo &Zilhao in press; Zilhao et al. 1987), and helped to correct culturalattributions of assemblages excavated prior to 1980 (Zilhao 1985; 1987;1988). Yet, except for Zilhao's (1987; 1990; 1991) study of theSolutrean, there is no general synthesis of the Portuguese Late UpperPalaeolithic.In 1987, Marks and Zilhao began in the Portuguese Estremadura tobuild a chronological, environmental and cultural scheme for the UpperPalaeolithic and Mesolithic of Portugal (Marks et al. in press). Thesenew data indicate that such periods as the Magdalenian or the Azilian,well defined and represented in Cantabrian Spain and western France, arenot directly applicable to the terminal Pleistocene occupations ofPortugal (Bicho 1992a). The term Magdalenian, applied to Portugueseassemblages, can be defined as a lithic techno-complex based on flakeand bladelet productions, covering the time-span from after the LateGlacial Maximum (c. 18,000 b.p.) to Holocene times (c. 9000 b.p.). Itcan be isolated from the Portuguese Solutrean by the lack of a bifacialtechnology, a general decrease in tool size and an increase in backedbladelets and micropoints (Bicho 1992a). After Solutrean times, majortechnological and typological changes occurred only after 8500 b.p.,with the introduction of the Mesolithic economy and the large-scaleproduction of geometrics ge��o��met��rics?n. (used with a pl. verb)1. Geometric qualities or properties.2. A pattern or design characterized by the use of geometric figures: using the micro-burin technique (Arnaud 1987;1990; Vierra 1992). Although the Portuguese 'Magdalenian' isdifferent from that in northern Iberia, it shows the same generalvariability as in the rest of western Europe. This wide variability bothat the micro- and macro-regional scale contrasts with the Solutrean,which is more uniform across space. In Portugal, the term Magdalenianis, essentially, a temporal term, while Solutrean has temporal,technological, geographical and cultural meaning.Palaeoenvironment of central Portugal: the Estremadura regionPortuguese Estremadura is located between c. 40 |degrees~ and 38|degrees~ 30|prime~ latitude north. A coastal area, Estremadura isbordered by the river Mondego to the north and by the Sado and Tagusriver valleys to the south and east. The environment of central Portugalis deeply marked by the wide and plain valleys of the Tagus and the Sadoand their tributaries, as well as by the great topographic variabilityof the limestone massif mas��sif?n.1. A large mountain mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a range.2. : the mountains of Serra d'Aire, Candeeirosand Montejunto all rising above 600 metres. The coast, characterized bya sinuous sinuous/sin��u��ous/ (sin��u-us) bending in and out; winding. sinuousbending in and out; winding. line of peninsulas, capes and river estuaries, is marked bysand dunes dating to the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, separatingenclaves of much older high cliffs. The present climate, influenced byAtlantic and Mediterranean elements, has a high gradient from north tosouth in both temperature and rainfall (Ribeiro et al. 1988).The traditional scenario for the Portuguese palaeoenvironment duringthe LGM, based on geomorphology geomorphology,study of the origin and evolution of the earth's landforms, both on the continents and within the ocean basins. It is concerned with the internal geologic processes of the earth's crust, such as tectonic activity and volcanism that constructs new and the pollen sequence from northernSpain and southern France (between 20,000 b.p. and 18,000 b.p.), is of atreeless tundra vegetation above 700 m in the mountains of Estrela,Cabreira, Geres and Peneda in central and northern Portugal (Daveau1971; 1973; 1980; 1986). Lower altitudes were characterized by an openpine forest, thicker in the river valleys. The polar front locatedaround the 42 |degrees~ parallel, with its strong, salty winds,eliminated the vegetation cover and deposited sand dunes, creating a'coastal desert' as far south as Lisbon (Daveau 1986; Zilhao1987). This scenario is believed to have been stable between 15,000 b.p.and c. 10,000 b.p., except for the contraction of the glaciers in thelowlands around the mountains. By 11,000 b.p., a cold and dry period(corresponding to Dryas III pollen zone sequence) caused an expansion ofthe glaciers of Estrela and the regression of the pine forests to moresouthern latitudes. Although palaeoenvironmental information is stillincomplete, new data from Rio Maior, various Estremaduran caves and twolacustrine pollen sequences from the southern coast suggest instead thatclimatic amelioration in central and southern Portugal occurred earlierand more rapidly than in the rest of western Europe. The replacement ofAtlantic by Mediterranean species most likely occurred immediately afterthe regression of the polar front located at 42 |degrees~ latitude,around the Gulf of Biscay (CLIMAP CLIMAP Climate/Long Range Investigation Mappings and Predictions Project 1976; McIntyre & Kipp 1976;Ruddiman & McIntyre 1981). High frequencies of such microfaunalspecies as Apodemus sylvaticus, Eliomys quercinus and Terricoladuodecimcostatus and reduced Microtus agrestis occur in a stratum (Eb)of Caldeirao cave dated to between c. 15,000 b.p. and 10,000 b.p.(Povoas et al. 1992). The increase of these three rodent speciesindicates the development of a Mediterranean climate, probably withpine, olive and oak forests, in a relatively high area (160 m)characterized today by a pre-Atlantic climate. The stratum lacks suchcolder climate macrofaunal species as ibex (Capra pyrenaica) and chamois chamois(shăm`ē), hollow-horned, hoofed mammal, Rupicapra rupicapra, found in the mountains of Europe and the E Mediterranean. (Rupicapra rupicapra), very important components of the earlierSolutrean occupation of the cave (Povoas et al. 1991; Zilhao 1991), andother Solutrean sites (Cardoso 1992). In the Magdalenian level ofCaldeirao and at the Algar de Cascais and Algar Joao Ramos (the lattertwo are not anthropic assemblages: Cardoso 1992) Capra pyrenaica andRupicapra rupicapra were replaced by wild boar (Sus scrofa) and roe deer(Capreolus TABULAR DATA OMITTED capreolus), two species adapted toforested areas, as well as by red deer (Cervus elaphus), aurochs aurochs:see cattle. aurochsor aurochExtinct wild ox (Bos primigenius) of Europe, the species from which cattle are probably descended. The aurochs survived in central Poland until 1627. It was black, stood 6 ft (1. (Bosprimigenius) and horse (Equus), all species adapted to more opentemperate environments and humid in the case of aurochs (Cardoso 1992).At Cabeco de Porto Marinho, wood charcoal from an archaeological leveldated to 11,200 b.p. (Figueiral in press) indicates a Mediterraneanforest with pine (Pinus pinea and Pinus pinaster pi��nas��ter?n.A Mediterranean pine tree (Pinus pinaster) having a characteristic pyramidal form and needles clustered in fascicles of two. ), evergreen anddeciduous oaks (Quercus ilex/suber), birch (Fraxinus angustifolia), wildstrawberry tree (Arbutus arbutusAny of about 14 species (genus Arbutus) of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs or trees, in the heath family. Native to southern Europe and western North America, they are characterized by loosely clustered white or pink flowers and red or orange berries. A. unedo) and olive (Olea europea ?sylvestris).Olive and wild strawberry trees suggest a warm and dry climate, similarto that of today.Pollen sequences are known from very few sites, all dated to Holocenetimes. Lagoa Comprida, located in the Serra da Estrela Serra da Es��tre��la?A mountain range of central Portugal including the highest elevation, 1,994.4 m (6,539 ft), in the country. at a highelevation of 1600 m, provides a sequence dated between c. 9200 b.p. and850 b.p. (Janssen & Woldringh 1981; Van den Brink & Janssen1985). The lowermost zone is characterized by pine pollen (Pinussylvestris), with some non-arboreal pollen, suggesting an open pineforest. Around 9000 b.p., the pollen assemblage exhibits a highfrequency of oak pollen and low frequencies of pine and non-arborealpollens. This oak forest lasted for about 800 years;. it was replacedaround 8300 b.p. by a mixed deciduous oak and birch forest that coveredthe landscape until deforestation deforestationProcess of clearing forests. Rates of deforestation are particularly high in the tropics, where the poor quality of the soil has led to the practice of routine clear-cutting to make new soil available for agricultural use. , around 5000 years ago, probably dueto human action (Van den Brink & Janssen 1985; Chester & James1991). Another pollen sequence from Lagoa Travessa, south of Lisbon, isdated between 7580 |+ or -~ 70 b.p. and present times (Mateus 1985).After a coastal pine forest (Pinus pinaster) dated to 7600-6500 b.p.,there was an increase in oak and alder pollens, as well as coastal scruband salt marsh species, corresponding to a marine transgression and theretreat of the coastline.These data show for the tardi-glacial and early Holocene in centralPortugal a gradual increase of vegetational density and diversity, witha mix of Atlantic and Mediterranean species in the lowlands and rivervalleys. This gradual increase was caused by the northern expansion ofthe Mediterranean biotic biotic/bi��ot��ic/ (bi-ot��ik)1. pertaining to life or living matter.2. pertaining to the biota.bi��ot��icadj.1. Relating to life or living organisms. communities that lived in southernmost Iberiaduring the LGM. After the LGM, the tree and shrub vegetation mantle ofthe mountains (cold-adapted pine species and some steppe steppe(stĕp), temperate grassland of Eurasia, consisting of level, generally treeless plains. It extends over the lower regions of the Danube and in a broad belt over S and SE European and Central Asian Russia, stretching E to the Altai and S to vegetation)slowly migrated upwards. Faunal communities that had been using the sameareas slowly disaggregated, with cold-adapted ibex and chamois movingtowards higher altitudes, while species like red deer, roe deer, wildboar, horse and aurochs shared the lowlands.Regional geomorphology was altered by the cut and fill of rivers,caused by the Atlantic transgression during the last deglaciation de��gla��ci��a��tion?n.The uncovering of glaciated land because of melting or sublimation of the glacier.deglaciation?The uncovering of land that was previously covered by a glacier. ,culminating around 5000 b.p., with high sea level and lacustrineenvironments in the Tagus and Sado basins. This cut and fill openedareas for localized eolian e��o��li��analso ae��o��li��an ?adj.Relating to, caused by, or carried by the wind.[From Aeolus. movement of sands that would affect humansettlement, fauna and flora, while the coast was a permanent area ofbeach and eolian action, as in the present.In summary, the climate would have been moderate and relatively dryafter 16,000 b.p. with a progressive increase through time in bothtemperature and moisture. The location and abundance of the differenttrees were more a local consequence of soil composition, ground wateravailability and atmospheric availability than global climaticconditions.The sites: dating and locationThere are only 18 sites in Portugal dated between 16,000 b.p. and c.8500 b.p., although some have multiple levels. At Carneira there arefour different areas: Carneira, excavated by Heleno some 50 years ago;Olival; Pinhal; and Carneira II (Bicho 1992a; Marks et al. in press).Cabeco do Porto Marinho (CPM) also has multiple areas and archaeologicallevels spanning the Aurignacian to the Bronze Age, with 11 levels datingbetween 16,000 b.p. and 9000 b.p. (Bicho 1992a; Marks et al. in press).Lapa do Suao, a cave site, contains Upper Palaeolithic andEpipalaeolithic occupations among others (Roche 1979; 1982). Finally,the rock-shelter of Bocas yielded five archaeological levels, of whichthe three lowest are dated to c. 10,000 years ago. Most occupations(site area, or archaeological level) are dated to after 12,000 b.p.Although the overall number of sites is very low, their locationsuggests that the coast was only rarely used as a settlement area before10,000 years ago. Marine shells and fish bones from Caldeirao cave(Zilhao 1992a; 1992b) show human movement between inland and coastalareas. In Pre-Boreal and Boreal bo��re��al?adj.1. Of or relating to the north; northern.2. Of or concerning the north wind.3. Boreal times both coastal and inland areas werewidely used by the hunter-gatherer communities. Sites tend toconcentrate in discrete areas, around the Rio Maior and Mira rivers, orthe coastal area north of the Tagus River. Shell-middens are presentonly after 10,000 b.p.; both coastal (Pedra do Patacho) and inland sites(e.g. Bocas and Casal Papagaio) have many marine and estuarine es��tu��a��rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary.2. Geology Formed or deposited in an estuary.Adj. 1. estuarine - of or relating to or found in estuariesestuarial shells,which indicate regular movement to and from the coast. While the coastalsite, Pedra do Patacho, is an open settlement, the two inlandshell-middens are in caves. All cave sites are inland, suggesting thatpresent coastal caves were not used during the terminal UpperPalaeolithic, as they were during the Solutrean.Open-air sites are located at low altitude (generally below 100 ma.s.l.) in sand deposits, frequently dunes, within a few hundred metresof a stream or near the confluence of two rivers. They also overlookwater from high points on the landscape; the southern sites, Palheiroesdo Alegra and Pedra do Patacho, overlook the Atlantic and, in the caseof the latter, the estuary of the Mira River.Features and site functionIn the Rio Maior area, the sites are on south-facing gentle slopes,on the higher sand ridges between the rivers, sunnier locations thatoffered protection from the predominant north winds. Hearths from theRio Maior sites have rocks and cobbles which would have providedprotection from the wind, but two Areeiro III hearths did not containrocks. They consisted only of large chunks of wood charcoal, piledagainst each other in a concentric manner and protected by a naturalerosional cut of the sand dune (Bicho 1991). The stone hearths found atsome Rio Maior sites, as well as other sites, such as Ponta da Vigia vi��gi��a?n.A warning on a navigational chart indicating a possible rock, shoal, or other hazard, the exact position of which is unknown.[Spanish vig��a, from Portuguese vigia, from (Zilhao et al. 1987), have semi-circles of angular, broken rocks andlarge cobbles, as well as large, fractured quartzite quartzite,usually metamorphic rock composed of firmly cemented quartz grains. Most often it is white, light gray, yellowish, or light brown, but is sometimes colored blue, green, purple, or black by included minerals. cores. The largecobbles are mostly quartz and quartzite, while the angular rockfragments are quartz, quartzite, sandstone and basalt. Around thesehearths the artefact See artifact. density is very high (Bicho 1992a; Marks 1991). AtPalheiroes do Alegra, the various hearths are 'cuvettes',circular in shape with a few rocks and slightly elevated at the centre,where the sand is very dark due to fire (Raposo et al. 1989). They are,most likely, the same kind of hearth as at Areeiro III, but the charcoalhas disappeared as Palheiroes do Alegra is a surface site. The Rio Maiorarchaeological levels are characterized by high frequencies of differentsized broken rocks and gravel, sometimes burned and very abundant,although very rarely do they resemble the Magdalenian-age pavementsfound in open-air sites in the Isle Valley of the Perigord (Gaussen1980). Only one feature suggests a purposeful shape, a rectangle c. 3 x2 m. In general, these rock concentrations are denser in the occupationsdated around 12,000 to 11,000 b.p. than in those older or younger.Apparently, there are different types of sites. The most common typeis very large, with large areas of occupation (more than 100 sq. m inarea), very large lithic collections and features such as hearths androck concentrations. Such sites could possibly represent what Binford(1980) has called base camps. The best examples of these occupations aresome later levels of Cabeco do Porto Marinho, Palheiroes do Alegra and,possibly, Areeiro III (although this last might correspond to asuccessive number of occupations during a few hundred years). The onlylarge occupation in a cave is represented by the levels'Fundo' and '1' of the rock-shelter of Bocas I, withlarge concentrations of lithic materials, including many large quartziteand quartz cores, and thick deposits. In level '1', a thickshell-midden marked by an abundance of estuarine shells, furtherindicates a residential base camp. Short term open air camps, extendingover only a few square metres and, in general, concentrating around asingle hearth, are found in some levels of Cabeco do Porto Marinho andsome Carneira areas. This type, may in fact, represent remains ofspecific activities, where there is low tool richness (cf. Chatters1987; Thomas 1988; 1989), smaller assemblage size, and fewer and lessdiversified features, as in the level dated to 10,940 b.p. of the'CPM III Trench' area.At Caldeirao cave (Zilhao 1992b) and in level '0' of BocasI, although the assemblage size is relatively large, the few toolclasses (i.e. low artefact class richness), high frequency of a veryspecialized type of microlithic backed point, and a very narrow range oflithic raw materials suggest possible logistical camps. The lack ofmeat-bearing bones (Binford 1978; Chatters 1987; Davidson 1983) such asvertebrae VertebraeBones in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the body that make up the vertebral column. Vertebrae have a central foramen (hole), and their superposition makes up the vertebral canal that encloses the spinal cord. , ribs or proximal epiphyses of long bones, suggest adismemberment dismemberment/dis��mem��ber��ment/ (dis-mem��ber-ment) amputation of a limb or a portion of it. dismembermentamputation of a limb or a portion of it. and butchering camp, consistent with the presence ofnumerous aurochs and red deer teeth, as well as distal fragments oftibia tibia:see leg. and aurochs astragalus astragalus/as��trag��a��lus/ (as-trag��ah-lus) talus.astrag��alar as��trag��a��lusn.See talus. . The location of Bocas is relevant, sincethe site is in the middle of a deep and narrow canyon of the Rio Maior,which provides the only easy communication between the eastern andwestern parts of the region. The entrance of this canyon would be theperfect place to ambush large game like aurochs and red deer, as well asspecies of more forested areas such as wild boar and roe deer.The bone and lithic assemblages: reduction strategies, technology andtypologyBone tools are rare in the Portuguese Palaeolithic, most likely dueto the low number of sites with preserved faunal remains. Bone tools,mostly fragments, dated to after the LGM are present only at Caldeiraocave (Zilhao pers. comm. 1992) and Bocas rock-shelter. These fragmentsare, in general, distal portions of sagaies (bone joints). Anunpublished fragment recovered in the late 1930s by Manuel Heleno inBocas, is decorated with short, oblique parallel lines. There is noevidence for harpoons.Lithic raw materials largely indicate dependence upon local sourceswith a strong preference for cherts. In the south, the local rawmaterial is greywacke Greywacke (German grauwacke, signifying a grey, earthy rock) is a variety of sandstone generally characterized by its hardness, dark color, and poorly-sorted, angular grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments set in a compact, clay-fine matrix. , available on beaches as cobbles, and theassemblages are mostly composed of it. Flint, not readily availablelocally, occurs in very low frequencies, used intensively for themanufacture of retouched tools. In the Rio Maior area and in the coastnorth of the Tagus, quartzite and quartz are immediately available. AtRio Maior, flint is also available at a distance of 1-3 km, depending onthe site (Marks et al. 1990), and assemblages are mainly of flint. Therewere three different economic strategies for the different rawmaterials. The strategy for quartz and quartzite was expediency (Binford1979); time consumption for lithic procurement and transportation waspractically non-existent, shaping and preparation of the core verysimple, core maintenance very rare or absent. Also, the retouched toolson these raw materials are very rare and, frequently, of very simpleform. This strategy is seen in Rio Maior (Bicho 1992a; in press a),Palheiroes do Alegra (Raposo et al. 1989; Vierra 1992), Caldeirao(Zilhao n.d.) and Ponta da Vigia (Vierra 1992; Zilhao et al. 1987). Thesecond strategy also present at these three latter sites, was TABULARDATA OMITTED curation, used for the silicious raw materials (Binford1979), since the flint, jasper and chalcedony chalcedony(kălsĕd`ənē)[from Chalcedon], form of quartz the crystals of which are so minute that its crystalline structure cannot be seen except with the aid of a microscope. were brought fromnon-local sources. The third strategy for flint and other silicious rawmaterials was expenditure, time-consuming in transport of nodules, aswell as in their shaping, preparation and maintenance, which producedlarge amounts of debitage The term debitage refers to the totality of waste material produced during lithic reduction and the production of chipped stone tools. This assemblage includes, but is not limited to, different kinds of lithic flakes, shatter, and production errors and rejects. and blanks for manufacture of formal retouchedtools. These tools were manufactured, used and discarded frequentlysince the raw material was abundant. Different reduction sequences wereused for different raw materials (Bicho in press b). While flint waslargely used in all strategies, quartz and quartzite were used mostly inunidirectional flaking; rarely quartz and quartzite cores exhibitevidence for bi-directional and multi-directional strategies. Shapingand preparation of the core was very different among the raw materials.Flint cores were extensively prepared and the cortex removed from allfaces, while the cortex of quartz cores was rarely extensively removed.This pattern was more extreme in the case of quartzite, where theoriginal core faces were rarely and never very extensively prepared(Bicho 1992a).The ratio of flint to non-silicious raw materials changed throughtime and was different between the two facies facies/fa��ci��es/ (fa��she-ez) pl. fa��cies ? [L.]1. the face.2. surface; the outer aspect of a body part or organ.3. expression (1). ('Carinated' and'Rio Maior'); the variability, both diachronic di��a��chron��icadj.Of or concerned with phenomena as they change through time. and synchronic syn��chron��ic?adj.1. Synchronous.2. Of or relating to the study of phenomena, such as linguistic features, or of events of a particular time, without reference to their historical context. ,is related to the increase in bladelet production. Although bladeletcores were made in quartz, there are very few complete quartz bladelets.Most complete bladelets and all retouched bladelet tools are on flint,suggesting that flint was preferred for bladelet production because itfractured less. As bladelet production increased, the frequency ofnon-silicious raw materials decreased.The assemblages from the Rio Maior area clustered into various groups(Bicho 1992a; 1992b) based on technological attributes, that indicateboth diachronic change and synchronic diversity. The two technologicalfacies (synchronic variability) can be easily separated by high and lowfrequencies of the carinated reduction strategy. Within eachtechnological facies there are temporal divisions. The'Carinated' facies was present after 11,000 b.p., while the'Rio Maior' facies was present, at least, since 16,000 b.p.The 'Rio Maior' facies, the most common, is dated, in afirst phase to between 16,000 b.p. and 15,000 b.p.. Quartz and quartziteexpedient technology was common. Assemblages dated to 14,000 b.p. aremarked by a high frequency of quartz materials, in the form of verylarge cores, as well as an abundance of large flakes. Flint material isessentially similar to that of the older assemblages. From 12,000 b.p.and 9000 b.p., two different phases (12,000 b.p. to 10,500 b.p. and10,500 b.p. to 9000 b.p.) share an increase in platform facetting, anincrease in bladelet production and in flint use, this increasedepending on the distance to the source (Bicho 1992a).The 'Carinated' facies is characterized by the extensiveuse of carinated technology, although other strategies (unidirectional,opposed, multi-directional) were also largely used. Non-silicious rawmaterials were rare. Bladelet size is significantly different from thoseof the other assemblages, while the bladelet tends to be twisted andpointed. The 'Carinated' facies also shows some temporaldiversity. Pinhal da Carneira, dated to c. 11,000 b.p., is still verysimilar both in technology and typology to most other assemblages datedto between 11,000 b.p. and 9000 b.p., but the younger assemblage,Areeiro III dated to c. 8500 b.p., is very different. This places thechange from Palaeolithic to Mesolithic later than elsewhere, since it isonly after 8500 b.p. that we see the material evidence (fauna, lithicmaterial, site location, settlement pattern) corresponding to the twosocial-economic systems, change significantly.Conclusions: subsistence and economy of the tardi-glacialhunter-gatherers of central and southern PortugalTardi-glacial human occupations are known mostly from inland open airsites in Estremadura, with only two sites located south of the Tagus,close to the Mira River. This is a major contrast with the earlierperiod, the Solutrean, when both cave and open air sites were frequentlyused at inland and present coastal areas (Zilhao 1992b). Although thedistances from Solutrean and Magdalenian sites to the present coast aredifferent, distances to contemporary shore-lines may have been the same.There is a significant difference in absolute areas and range ofoccupation. After the LGM, coastal resources were more frequently usedas shown by marine shell, used in adornments, and the increase of fishremains at Caldeirao cave (Zilhao 1992a; n.d.). There is earlierevidence for shellfish consumption at Figueira Brava Cave, south ofLisbon, during the final Mousterian c. 30,000 b.p. (Antunes et al. 1989;Cardoso 1992). The human diet after the LGM was based on the largeherbivores such as red deer, roe deer, wild boar, horse, and aurochs.From 10,000 b.p. there was a clear change in diet. Shell-middens, bothinland and coastal, indicate intensive use of estuarine and coastalenvironments. There was regional variation in human subsistence. Hillyareas, around the Caldeirao and Casal Papagaio caves, were probablyrelatively dense forests, where the main prey species was red deer,although rabbit and hare were also largely exploited (Zilhao 1992b), androe deer and wild boar less so (Zilhao 1987; 1992b). This faunalassemblage contrasts sharply with that of the LGM, with ibex and chamois(Zilhao 1992b). It is also different from other assemblages also datedto after the LGM but located in flat plains such as the Rio Maior area.In these flatter, lower areas, the river banks were forested withMediterranean and Atlantic tree types and contained animal species suchas red deer and wild boar. Further from the river, on the plains,aurochs and horse lived in open Mediterranean woodland with oaks, pinesand olive trees. At Bocas, close to flat plains and forested riverbanks, the prey species were red deer and aurochs. There is indirectevidence that tardi-glacial hunter-gatherers were exploiting plantresources; grinding stones (including hand-stones and milling-stones),and charcoal from tree species which provide edible nuts and fruits suchas olives, acorns and wild tree strawberries. The grinding stones couldhave been for ochre-processing, but there is no macroscopic evidence forthis. It is reasonable to think that they were used forplant-processing. After 16,000 b.p., the subsistence of theTardi-glacial human groups was based on terrestrial mammals, mostly reddeer and wild boar or aurochs. Rabbits and hares were part of the diet,mostly in hilly areas. Plant foods were available and were most likelyexploited. Shellfish, present at sites through and after the LGM, becameimportant only c. 10,000 b.p.. The inland shell-middens suggest groupsfrequently moving between coastal and inland areas, using coastal,estuarine, inland plain and inland mountain zones. During this periodboth bladelet and micropoints became more common and smaller in size.The increase of micropoints is possibly related to the development oftip/barb for bow-and-arrow technology, as well as to change in mobility,also suggested by different and more complex site location. The increasein mobility was most likely related to the availability of new and morediversified resources, that made possible a new scheduling of economicactivities, depending more on the seasonal rotation of the naturalresources such as plants, small mammals, fish, and birds. In the case ofRio Maior, the coastal-inland movement may be a consequence of thepresence of good quality flint, although flint is found at a few coastalpoints such as Lisbon and Nazare. For the southern sites, presentlyknown only on the coast, the likely sources for silicious raw materialare the inland mountains (Vierra 1992), suggesting, again, movementbetween coastal and inland areas.The change in the lithic technology, possibly an indirect consequenceof change in vegetation density from open to closed forests, culminatedaround 6,500 years ago during the Flandrian transgression, withextensive use of microburin technique and mass production of geometrics,seen in the shell-middens of the Tagus and Sado basins (Arnaud 1990),and on the Estremadura and Alentejo coasts (Vierra 1992).The data presented here indicate palaeo-environmental changes earlierin central Portugal than in the rest of Europe, influencing technology,hunting strategies, and economic systems. This technology, more settledand apparently more reliable, lasted until later, 8,500 b.p., than inother areas of Europe, with a stability clearly different from thetraditional 'Magdalenian' seen elsewhere. Acknowledgements. Ithank the National Science Foundation (Grant BNS-8803798 andBNS-9107144), the Portuguese Government (Junta Nacional de InvestigacaoCientifica e Tecnologica, and Department of Archaeology of the InstitutoPortugues do Patrimonio Cultural), and the Institute for the Study ofEarth and Man, Southern Methodist University (Seed Grant) for fundingthe Estremadura research. The dates from Bocas I were obtained throughthe good offices of the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia. I am verygrateful to Dr A.E. Marks for his help and comments during these lastfive years of work. I also wish to thank Dr David Meltzer for commentson an earlier version of this paper, and my wife, Dr Maria Masucci, whohelped in the editing. In addition, helpful comments were offered by ananonymous reviewer. The responsibility for the lithic analysis,interpretation, conclusions and any possible errors are mine alone.ReferencesANTUNES, M.T., J.M. 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