"Said to be a very honest Jew:" the R. G. Dun credit reports and Jewish business activity in mid-19th century Montreal.

"Said to be a very honest Jew:" the R. G. Dun credit reports and Jewish business activity in mid-19th century Montreal. Abstract This paper examines the participation of members of Montreal'stiny Jewish community in the city's economic development betweenthe 1840's and the 1870's. Based largely on the R. G. Dun& Co. credit reports, this study reveals that Jews concentratedmainly in the retailing of jewellery and fancy goods, tobacco anddrygoods and in clothing manufacturing. Most were petty traders; theywere often transitory figures who succumbed to the vagaries of businessfluctuations, or were incompetent, poorly financed or dishonest.Although his Jewishness was always taken note of, a businessman'screditworthiness CreditworthinessThe condition in which the risk of default on a debt obligation by that entity is deemed low.CreditworthinessEligibility of an individual or firm to borrow money. was apparently assessed as objectively as that of anon-Jew: there is no evidence that antisemitism--of which there isplenty in these reports--by itself adversely affected Jewish businessmobility or success to any significant extent. In this period Jewishbusinessmen tended to keep to trades or businesses with which they werefamiliar before immigrating; they often brought inventory with them,relied on family credit and kept largely to themselves. Most achieved amodest living while a few successful tobacco and clothing manufacturesemerged. Resume L'auteur s'interesse a la participation de la petitecommunaute juive de Montreal au developpement economique de la villedurant les annees 1840-1870. Essentiellement basee sur les dossiers decredit de la maison R. G. Dun & Co., l'etude montre que lesJuifs exercaient surtout Sur`tout´n. 1. A man's coat to be worn over his other garments; an overcoat, especially when long, and fitting closely like a body coat.Noun 1. leur activite dans le commerce de detail(bijouterie bi��jou��te��rie?n.1. A collection of trinkets or jewelry.2. Decoration.[French, from bijou, piece of jewelry; see bijou. , articles de fantaisie, tabac, mercerie) et la fabrication fabrication (fab´rikā´shn),n the construction or making of a restoration. de vetements. La plupart etaient de petits commercants. Figures souventephemeres de I'univers des affaires, ils resistaient mal auxfluctuations de la conjoncture ou manquaient de savoir-faire, de capitalvoire d'honnetete. Leur identite de juif n'etait jamais passeesous silence, mais leur solvabilite semble avoir ete evaluee aussiobjectivement que celle Celle(tsĕl`ə), city (1994 pop. 73,670), Lower Saxony, N Germany, on the Aller River. Its manufactures include food products, electronic components, chemicals, and textiles. Wax processing and horse breeding are important locally. des non-Juifs. Rien n'indique queI'antisemitisme qui affleure dans les dossiers consultes ait nuidefacon notable a leur liberte d'action ou a leur succes. Leshommes d'affaires juifs de I'epoque avaient tendance as'en tenir a des activites qu'ils connaissaient avantd'immigrer; souvent ils avaient emporte des stocks dans leursbagages. Ils se pretaient de l'argent a l'interieur du cerclede famille, dont ils ne sortaient guere. Si la plupart se sont fait uneexistence modeste, quelques fabricants de produits du tabac et devetements sont sortis du lot. ********** Mark Samuel, who ran a men's hat shop on Montreal's NotreDame Notre Dame IPA: [nɔtʁ dam]is French for Our Lady, referring to the Virgin Mary. In the United States of America, Notre Dame Street in the early 1850s, probably did not know what was beingwritten about him in the R. G. Dun and Company credit report of 1852.(1) The entry under his name read "Said to be a very honestJew," signalling to potential creditors: 'here is one you cantrust'. (2) Not all Jewish businessmen in Montreal received suchpraise. Most got far worse, and might be described as: "closefisted Jew," "trying to get the best of to gain an advantage over, whether fairly or unfairly.- Milton.See also: Best a bargain" orsimply as "Jew, cannot trust." These descriptions, selectedfrom the Dun reports on Jewish businessmen in Montreal, went beyond thekinds of characterizations attached to local businessmen of othernational or ethnic origins, like Irishmen, Scots, Americans, andFrench-Canadians and, no doubt, reflected anti-Semitism that was derivedfrom a variety of sources. In business, Jews clearly had a reputationfor shrewdness, toughness and dishonesty that went far beyond thereputed canniness of the Scot, or the sharpness of the Yankee trader Yankee Trader is a "door" text-based game from the BBS era, which ran on MSDOS BBSes. It is similar to TradeWars 2002. Each user is the commander of a starship. You travel about the galaxy using modified MUD commands (instead of moving N,S,E,W, you move to an adjacent "" number). .The prevailing assumption seems to have been that one really had to beon one's guard when dealing with a Jew, and those who reportedconfidentially to R. G. Dun and Company made it their business to findout who was a Jew, to try to watch that person's dealings moreclosely than they would otherwise. A check of merchants designated asJewish by Dun reporters with those listed in the 1861 and 1871manuscript census returns, which have been carefully examined by CharlesCole in an undergraduate thesis at McGill, indicate that the reportershad an accurate knowledge of who was a Jew. (3) But 'didanti-semitism matter?' If it had not existed, would Jews have faredbetter in this business environment of mid-19th century Montreal? The commercial community that dominated the economic life ofMontreal had included since the Conquest, a small number of Jews as wellas a few Germans and Italians amidst the Anglo-Celtic majority of Scots,Americans, English and Irish, and the minority of French-Canadians. Jewshad been present in Quebec since 1760, when several arrived as sutlerswith the British forces in the wake of the Conquest. (4) A few othersfiltered in during subsequent decades, most apparently migrating fromthe United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. and Britain. But there were enough of them to found asynagogue in Montreal in 1768, the She'erith Israel, known as theSpanish and Portugese. Because of its growing importance as the hub oftrade on the St. Lawrence River and its commercial, financial andindustrial expansion in the 1840s, Montreal's population increased.The city's Jewish population, though rising modestly in comparisonto the huge increase in the number of Irish, grew significantly fromabout 80 persons in 1831 to about 650 in 1871. Montreal became thelargest Jewish centre in the province. By mid-century this communitypossessed an impressive new synagogue The Neue Synagoge (Eng. "New Synagogue") was built 1859-1866 as the main synagogue of the Berlin Jewish community, on Oranienburger Stra?e. Because of its splendid eastern moorish style and resemblance to the Alhambra, it is an important architectural monument of the second on Lagauchetiere Street, a"minister," the Reverend Abraham de Sola--a graduate of JewsCollege, University of London For most practical purposes, ranging from admission of students to negotiating funding from the government, the 19 constituent colleges are treated as individual universities. Within the university federation they are known as Recognised Bodies and a learned biblical scholar--andenjoyed an enviable status in the city. A Jew, Moses Judah Hays, hadbecome chief of the Montreal police force. Others served as magistrates,while others held commissions in provincial militia regiments, andanother had received an appointment to the medical school ofBishop's College Bishop's College in Colombo, Sri Lanka was founded by the Church of England in Ceylon in February 1875.Located in colombo 3,Sri lanka,It was one of the earliest mission schools of the Church of England in Ceylon. The college was first known as Bishopsgate School. . (5) By about 1850, members of the Jewish community of Montreal werelisted among the local merchants who dominated increasingly diversebusiness affairs in the city. Jews owned shares in the chartered banks;as early as the 1810s and 1820s David David even sat on the boards ofthe Bank of Montreal “BMO” redirects here. For the mathematics competition, see British Mathematical Olympiad.Bank of Montreal/Banque de Montr��al (TSX:BMO, NYSE:BMO) is Canada's fourth largest bank[1], and is classified as a Domestic Chartered Bank (Schedule I). and the Lachine Canal The Lachine Canal (Canal Lachine in French) is a canal passing through the southwestern part of the Island of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, through the boroughs of Lachine and Le Sud-Ouest. Company. (6) Hays, the policechief, owned the Montreal waterworks until he sold the company to thecity in 1845. (7) He was one of the few wealthy Jews who, besides owningshares in all of these ventures and in ships, both sail and steam, heldsubstantial quantities of real estate. (8) Thus, some were so successfulthat, except for being denied membership in the most elitist e��lit��ismor ����lit��ism ?n.1. The belief that certain persons or members of certain classes or groups deserve favored treatment by virtue of their perceived superiority, as in intellect, social status, or financial resources. organizations of the rich Anglo-Celts, they could claim influence in thecity. Abraham de Sola Abraham de Sola (b. Sept. 18, 1825, London, England- June 5, 1882, New York) was a Rabbi, author, Orientalist, and scientist. Originating from a large renown family of Rabbis and scholars, De Sola was recognized there as one of the most powerful leaders of Orthodox Judaism in the , now known as "rabbi," was appointedspecial lecturer in Oriental languages at McGill in 1853. Meanwhile,Jesse Joseph, the president of the Montreal Gas Company, and by far therichest Jew in Montreal, was amassing a vast amount of the first-classurban real estate. (9) By mid-century, in fact, there were really two Jewish communitiesin Montreal. In 1846, a number of the Jewish immigrants arriving fromEngland, Germany, and Poland over the preceding 20 years, became sodisenchanted with the style of worship in the Spanish and Portugesesynagogue where the Sephardic (Spanish) rite was followed. Thedissidents established their own congregation called Sha'arHashamayim (Gates of Heaven), also known as the English, German, andPolish shulto reflect the origins of its founders. (10) Here thefamiliar Ashkenazic (German) order of service was adopted and thecustomary cantillations of prayer of those communities could be used.Like their Jewish predecessors in Montreal, these immigrants alsoentered into business, usually on a much smaller scale than those oftheir Jewish predecessors. Most became retailers and petty traders invarious lines: peddlers, tobacconists, pawnbrokers, tailors, and thelike. What is interesting to historians of business, however, is thediscovery of what lies behind such manifestations of economic activity.What sectors did these men--and a few women--enter? What paths did theyfollow in the Montreal business world and what does this experience tellus that we did not know about the city's business environment inthe last half of the 19th century? In what ways, finally, was the Jewishexperience in the Montreal business world unique, or at leastsubstantially different from that of the Scots, Americans, English andFrench-Canadians? That is, did they constitute a separate businessenclave, to a significant degree working apart from the rest in a kindof Jewish business ghetto? If so, did they separate themselves, or werethey excluded by reason of anti-Semitism from certain sectors ofbusiness? In business, did anti-Semitism really matter, and, if so, inwhat ways did it restrict Jews from progressing or from entering certainfields? Until about ten years ago, the literature on Jewish businessactivity was surprisingly thin. In 1977, one scholar observed that whileJewish historiography included whole libraries of works on the Jewishreligious, philosophical and cultural experience over 4,000 years, therewere few good studies of Jewish economic history. (11) In most of thestudies of Jewish communities in the United States and Canada, there isusually only modest treatment given to economic affairs, though MosesRischin's book on New York's Jewry, and Lloyd Gartner'swork on the Jewish immigrants in England are significant exceptions.(12) New scholarly works on Jewish life in Indianapolis, Detroit, andMontreal devote relatively little detailed attention to businessaffairs, or to economic dimensions of Jewish life generally. (13)However, two recent histories of Jewish life in medium-sized Americancities during the 19th century, Steven Hertzberg's on Atlanta, andWilliam Toll's on Portland, Oregon, reflect the influence of thenew social history on American Jewish studies Jewish studies also known as Judaic studies is a subject area of study available at many colleges and universities in North America.Traditionally, Jewish studies was part of the natural practice of Judaism by Jews. . They are of immenseinterest to students of business history. (14) Both works, which are based upon intensive analysis of themanuscript census data, Dun and Company credit reports, and the recordsof fraternal orders fraternal orders,organizations whose members are usually bound by oath and who make extensive use of secret ritual in the conduct of their meetings. Most fraternal orders are limited to members of one sex, although some include both men and women. , synagogues, diaries, and correspondence, evaluatethe processes of chain migration from the old world to the new, and thecreation of a predominantly mercantile, Jewish business class from whicha small cadre of manufacturers later emerged. William Toll stresses theimportance of family-based commercial networks in which Jewish singlemales from South German and Bavarian small towns moved to Portland inthe 1850s to pioneer in petty commerce, often as peddlars. Whenmoderately successful, they brought out members of their immediate andextended families, as well as wives, from Germany. (15) Relying on theaccumulated savings, acquired commercial skills and the credit generatedfrom family or fraternal institutions, they created commercial andindustrial enterprises that generated considerable wealth. He stressesthat the Jewish business class in Portland evolved largely independentof the non-Jewish environment and notes that, while business contactsdeveloped between Jews and non-Jews in Portland, anti-Semitic attitudesreflected in R. G. Dun credit reports essentially forced Jews to rely onthemselves. (16) David Gerber's scholarly study on the Jews ofBuffalo argues that these reports reflect the persistence in America ofthe image of Shylock Shylockshrewd, avaricious moneylender. [Br. Lit.: Merchant of Venice]See : Usury , the parasite, the predator, the fraud, thearsonist, the seller of trinkets, in short the quintessential Jew andthat such anti-Semitism "may well have been significant for manyJewish businessmen." (17) He argues that discrimination againstthese "Shylocks" forced the Jews to adopt alternative economicstrategies, such as borrowing from within immediate family networks,creating partnerships and other means to circumvent a 'creditsqueeze' forced upon them by the prevalent negative stereotype.(18) How well do these patterns apply to the context of Montreal?Students of business or Jewish history Jewish history is the history of the Jewish people, faith, and culture. Since Jewish history encompasses nearly four thousand years and hundreds of different populations, any treatment can only be provided in broad strokes. in Canada, would say that some ofthe themes in American studies--migration, family connections, intercitynetworks and patterns of ethnic business association--were wellestablished patterns in the wider context of Canadian business Canadian Business is the longest-publishing business magazine in Canada. It was founded in 1928 as The Commerce of the Nation, the organ of the Canadian Chamber of Commerce. The magazine was renamed Canadian Business in 1933. in themid-19th century. Douglas McCalla's study of the Buchananfamily's mercantile business, and numerous other works, includingmy own on the business community in Montreal, illustrate that strongpatterns of family business linkages prevailed among Scots and Americansin Montreal's commercial world at that time. (19) Borrowing fromfamily and friends and forming business partnerships were widespreadpractices in mid-19th century Montreal despite the increasing use ofincorporated companies in this era of economic transformation.Therefore, the fact that the Jews were characterized by the samefeatures should not surprise anyone. Thus, the following examination ofJewish business activity in Montreal from 1850 to 1900 is intended toilluminate how the Jews fitted into the business environment of thatcity in a period of rapid economic growth, diversification, andmodernization. It is a report on research in progress based essentiallyupon the census returns, Montreal city directories, and R. G. Dunreports for Montreal between 1846 and 1876. It is part of a larger studyon the social and economic history of Montreal The human history of Montreal, located in Quebec, Canada, spans some 8,000 years and started with the Algonquin, Huron, and Iroquois tribes of North America. Jacques Cartier became the first European to reach the area now known as Montreal in 1535 when he entered the village of Jewry. Though increasing in numbers in numbered parts; as, a book published in numbers.See also: Number , Jews constituted a very smallminority, about one half of one percent, of Montreal's populationbetween 1840 and 1880 (20), and most of them were in a limited array ofbusinesses. The profile of Jewish business activity in Montreal wasdecidedly focused in four sectors of the local economy: in jewellery,tobacco, drygoods (and textiles), and clothing manufacturing. In all ofthese sectors the connections among the individuals, families and groupsinvolved, the sources of capital and financing, and markets, werestrikingly important. There were relatively few Jewish businessmen dealing withjewellery, or in "fancy goods", which included trinkets anddecorations. But the Dun reports reveal some fascinating informationabout their capital, connections and style of business. Moses Ollendorf,a German Jew, arrived with some capital in 1848, and at age 44, andstarted by repairing jewellery (21) and small-scale retailing. Afterfailing in 1852, he recommenced business on a modest scale as animporter and wholesaler dealing mainly with Jewish peddlers. By 1862,after a second failure in which he paid out his creditors, he wasreported to be worth some $15,000 and described as "a shrewdcunning Jew (who) lives in great style." He assisted a brother, alocal soap maker, and helped put his son-inlaw, Lewis Anthony, asmall-scale clothing manufacturer, into business in Toronto. (22) As amember of the English, German, and Polish congregation, Ollendorf wasactive in the campaign to build its first synagogue in the 1850s andgave handsomely enough to be elected its first president in 1960. (23) Abraham Hoffnung, another German Jew, arrived in 1855 at age 25with inventory worth about $8,000, enough to start selling watches; hehad been in St. Louis, Missouri for several years, probably working withrelatives or friends. (24) Like Ollendorf, Hoffnung was an importer andwholesaler, dealing mainly with English suppliers. His businessprospered, and he was estimated to have made a profit of $5,000 to$6,000 within two years. He benefitted from the excellent credit heenjoyed in London and, probably, from his marriage to the daughter ofJohn Levy John Levy (b. April 11, 1912, in New Orleans, Louisiana) is an African-American jazz double-bassist and businessman.In 1944, Levy left his hometown of Chicago, Illinois, and moved to New York City, New York, where he played bass for such renowned jazz musicians as Ben , a well-to-do local tobacco merchant. Hoffnung's businesswas well-regarded, though the Dun reporter in October 1858 complainedthat he "belongs to a class regarding whom it is next to impossibleto learn anything certain," meaning that Jews were secretive abouttheir business dealings, a complaint often registered about Jews. ByMarch 1860, Hoffnung was estimated to be worth $10,000 and his annualturnover $25,000 on a stock of about equal value. In August 1860, he wasjoined by another young English Jew, George Wolfe, one of two brotherswho had been partners in a small jewellery business since arriving in1858 with an $8,000 inventory that was supplied by his sister-in-law.(25) Gottschalk Ascher was another German-Jewish jewellery merchant inMontreal. (26) He had arrived from Glasgow in 1841 at age 50. He soldwatches and jewellery and, by 1857, the date of the earliest Dun reportson him, was thought to be doing well, though the reporter complainedthat it was difficult to get information about his obligations. By thattime, he had already established a branch store in Toronto run by hissons, Jacob and Albert. Ascher bought merchandise in both New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of andGlasgow and, despite severe setbacks in 1857, possibly because of thesons' takeover of the Montreal store, he was back in businesswithin a few months on a much reduced scale. By that time, his third sonAlbert--who had married Rachel Joseph, the daughter of a very wealthy,old Montreal Old Montreal (or Vieux-Montr��al in French) is the oldest area in the Canadian city of Montreal, dating back to colonial times.Located in the borough of Ville-Marie, the area is usually thought of as being bounded to the west by McGill St. Sephardic family--was the firm's travelling salesman.The marriage into wealth did not help business, however, and by 1861, itwas sputtering A popular method for adhering thin films onto a substrate. Sputtering is done by bombarding a target material with a charged gas (typically argon) which releases atoms in the target that coats the nearby substrate. It all takes place inside a magnetron vacuum chamber under low pressure. . The shortlived co-partnership of Dinklespiel and Bumsel, organizedin 1859, was made up of Michael Dinklespeil, another German, and MichaelBumsel, a Swiss, both of whom immigrated in the mid-1850s. (27) This wasa wholesale house, and Bumsel--a jewellery peddler peddleror hawker,itinerant vendor of small goods. In rural America peddlers carried their packs or drove a horse and cart from door to door. until he teamed upwith Dinklespeil--seems to have been its salesman. The leading partnerwas Dinklespeil, who was supported by a brother in New York, who becamethe effective owner of the business in 1861. But, after starting well,the firm closed down in October 1862, after holding an auction of itsstock and settling up accounts in Montreal. Dinklespeil went toCalifornia, probably as his brother's agent, while Bumsel returnedto Europe, possibly to peddle jewellery in the Swiss countryside. Henry Davis and Julius Lander, both Germans, began in 1861 toimport jewellery and fancy goods through Lander's connections inGermany. (28) They sold mainly at wholesale to peddlers like SamuelSilverman, whose wife kept a millinery shop in the city, and to HermanDanciger, a German who had migrated to Montreal from New York, where hehad run a clothing store for several years. They also supplied to SimonHart who also had an interest in a pawn shop a shop where a pawnbroker does business.- Shak.See also: Pawn (29) with WilliamSilverstone, also a German, and with his son, Philip Hart Philip Aloysius Hart (December 10, 1912–December 26, 1976) was a Democratic United States Senator from Michigan from 1959 until 1976. He was nicknamed the Conscience of the Senate. , and his ownwife, Matilda Waldheimer. Silverstone left the partnership in February1863 and set up his own pawnshop with Louis Albert, a former peddler. And finally, David Ansell, though not a jeweller, might be includedhere because he imported various kinds of German glassware and toys.(30) An agent for several German firms, he arrived in 1862 fromQueensland, Australia, where he hac served an apprenticeship in thisline. He had excellent connections in Frankfurt, where his father was animportant glass manufacturer with outlets in London, Paris and Hamburg.By 1869 Ansell was reported to be worth from $8,000 to $10,000 andenjoyed a good reputation. "He evidently knows how to makemoney," commented Dun's reporter after noting that Ansellclaimed to have made $10,000 in 1868 alone: "a result few wouldexpect from the quiet business he does." Besides knowing how toturn a handsome agent's profit in his various lines, Ansellspeculated in property. In 1871, for example, he built a row of stonehouses on Sherbrooke Street worth about $20,000 and carrying a mortgageof only $7,000. That year he employed six travelling salesmen, includingone working exclusively in the United States. By 1874 he was reportedstill to be doing well, though possessing a "peculiar style ofdoing business," whatever that meant, while estimates of hispersonal wealth ran as high as $50,000. He had serious thoughunexplained reverses a year later, perhaps because of the depressionand, in November 1875, was forced to make an assignment with hisliabilities totalling $130,000 against assets of $40,000. Although welose sight of him at this point in the credit reports, Ansell went intoother business ventures, apparently with great success. He was one ofthe most important figures in Montreal's Jewish community fornearly another 40 years, taking a very active role in charitable workamong the city's numerous immigrants, the colonization of Jews onthe western prairies, and in the bitter Quebec political issues thataffected Montreal Jewry. (31) Summarizing, then, we note that nearly all of these Jewishjewellers in Montreal were German. Most of them clearly arrived withsome capital or inventory, as well as business and family connections inGermany, Britain or the United States, who supplied them with vitallyimportant agencies for specific lines of merchandise, credits andinformation. Several were wholesalers who supplied goods to localpeddlers, or to upcountry traders, most of whom, apparently, were alsoJews. But, clearly, not all of them prospered; about half operatedenterprises which were short-lived. In Montreal's tobacco business, by contrast, there werepractically no German Jews The Jewish presence in Germany is older than Christianity; the first Jewish population came with the Romans to the city Cologne. A "Golden Age" in the first millennium saw the emergence of the Ashkenazi Jews, while the persecution and expulsion that followed the Crusades led to the . Tobacconists owned mostly small-scaleenterprises which apparently enjoyed very few family or other creditconnections abroad. There was one giant firm, that of the Joseph family,Sephardic Jews. They had settled originally in Berthier in about 1800,then in Quebec in 1814 and, finally, in Montreal in 1830. (32) Theirtobacco business was so large, so well capitalized, and so sound, thatin October 1858, the Dun report rated them "As good as the Bank.You may trust them (for) all they will buy," and in February 1859,"Jews and 'Rich as Jews'." (33) The firm, run byJacob Henry Joseph, occupied huge premises in Montreal, where itmanufactured various tobacco products distributed across the Province.In October 1857, they also held other assets other assetsAssets of relatively small value. For financial reporting purposes, firms frequently combine small assets into a single category rather than listing each item separately. , possibly real estate,worth over $200,000. A year later Jacob Henry was reported to bebuilding a house for $40,000, and was believed to have a net worth of atleast $100,000. In 1866 he took in Alexander Hart Alexander Hart (b. October 1, 1839 - d. September 21, 1911) was a major in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. Military careerAs detailed in his journal (which chronicles, albeit briefly Hart's military service from July 4, 1864 through the end of the as a junior partner,because he was busy with other lucrative interests. These included realestate, as well as extensive holdings of shares in local telegraph,railway, and bank companies, as well as the Montreal Elevator Company.Joseph was also an officer on the Montreal Board of Trade, the harbourauthority, and supported a number of charities. (34) By comparison with Joseph, most of the other Jews in the tobaccobusiness were much smaller fry. Of these, for awhile during the 1850s,John Levy, whose daughter married the jeweller, Abraham Hoffnung--wasapparently one of the most successful. An immigrant from Manchester, hebegan business in 1843 in a small way. Ten years later, however, usingcredits from New York city New York City:see New York, city. New York CityCity (pop., 2000: 8,008,278), southeastern New York, at the mouth of the Hudson River. The largest city in the U.S. firms, he was doing very well and accordingto according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the Dun reporter, "making money ... owns (real estate) and issaid to be rich + good." (35) Thought to be worth from $18,000 to$22,000, he was doing $60-$65,000 business annually. The Dun reporternoted that Levy put on "a princely entertainment" for hisdaughter's wedding in March 1858. But Levy died the followingAugust, leaving his widow and ten children--and his creditors--with arat's nest of tangled finances. His wife, Gertrude, settled withcreditors, most of them in New York, for 50 cents on the dollar, andcontinued the business, though on a much reduced scale, and solely inretail. She opened a shop in Quebec and gave it to one of her sons tomanage; but it closed a few years later and Mrs Levy was forced to takein boarders to help meet expenses, while eking out a meagre mea��geralso mea��gre ?adj.1. Deficient in quantity, fullness, or extent; scanty.2. Deficient in richness, fertility, or vigor; feeble: the meager soil of an eroded plain.3. living inher small shop. Samuel Davis Samuel Davis, (1774 – April 20 1831), was a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts.Born in Bath, Maine (until 1820 a district of Massachusetts), Davis engaged in mercantile pursuits. He became a shipowner in 1801. , arrived in Montreal from New York, with some means,about 1864. A cigarmaker by trade, he began manufacturing"medicated" cigars and opened two stores in Montreal, thusdoing both a retail trade and a wholesale business. (36) He sold to goodaccounts only and, if some turned sour, he would sell off the debt at adiscount. Though in good standing in Montreal, Davis did not use hiscredit there, somewhat to the mystification mys��ti��fi��ca��tion?n.1. The act or an instance of mystifying.2. The fact or condition of being mystified.3. Something intended to mystify.Noun 1. of Dun's reporter,preferring instead to draw on his New York contacts. In August 1868, hebrought Lyon Silverman--who invested $4,000--into the firm as a partner.Eighteen months later, however, despite their preference for "goodaccounts," the firm was forced to bankruptcy as a result of afailure of one of their major creditors, with liabilities totalling$17,700 against assets of only $8,500. After settling his debts at 40 percent, Davis returned to businesstwo years later with the help of his creditors in New York. He had a newpartner in Jacob L. Moss, a former pawnbroker pawnbroker,one who makes loans on personal effects that are left as security. The practice of pawnbroking is ancient, as is recognition of the danger it involves of oppressing the poor. , who put $20,000 into thisbusiness and became the dominant partner. By October 1874, the firm wasthriving and employed 75 workers producing cigars. They received ordersfrom advertisements, sold at retail from their store in St LawrenceHall, and were extending their business into Ontario. Less than a yearlater, Davis and Moss claimed to be doing $300,000 business a year,while being supported by substantial lines of credit at both the CityBank and Molson's Bank. The firm had thus made a transition fromsole reliance on New York to at least partial integration into theMontreal financial system. The business prospered, mainly because of theeffective direction given by Sam Davis' son, Mortimer, who, aspresident of the American Tobacco Company of Canada and Imperial TobaccoCompany of Canada in the 1890s, was the country's "tobaccoking" and a multimillionaire. (37) Next to these large businesses, most Jewish tobacconists were smallretailers, or peddlers. Essentially transient, they set up, struggledfor a few years and, finally, disappeared like so many others. In 1860Henry Jacobs and Michael Michaels, formerly of Guelph, Ontario Guelph (IPA: gwɛlf) (population 114,943[1]) is a city located in the Southwestern region of Ontario, Canada. , opened asmall retail and wholesale shop in Montreal. (38) They struggled foryears with a small stock-in-trade and limited credit. Abraham Levey andHumphry Michaels did the same in their firm which began in 1858. (39)But circumstances forced them to become peddlers within a year. RebeccaWarner operated a retail store in the 1850s for her husband, anundischarged bankrupt, with the backing, according to Dun'ssomewhat suggestive report, "of parties who take a peculiarinterest in her." In November 1858, with heavy debts outstanding,Rebecca and her husband suddenly left town for parts unknown, never tobe seen again in Montreal. Then there were Zacharias and Delapratz,German Jewish cigarmakers from Connecticut, who blew into town in August1866, ran up substantial debts, and hightailed it out of town two yearslater leaving their creditors high and dry. (40) Samuel Brahadi, anEnglish Jew and a cigar maker, set up a small shop in 1861 and did areasonable trade until he was forced out of business in 1869 as a resultof debts accumulated by his brother (of whom more later) for whom he wasguarantor. (41) Thus, in the tobacco business, aside from one large firm andanother of medium size, there existed a group of very small-scale Jewishretailers and cigar makers who were characterized by financial weaknessand transiency. In the clothing business, a traditional Jewish area ofenterprise, in its various branches--retailing, wholesaling,manufacturing and importing--the pattern of Jewish participation wasmuch different. There was considerable Jewish activity in the clothing trades,mostly in the manufacture of caps, hats, and furs. This business hadseveral dimensions. Some operators like Mark Samuel, the "veryhonest Jew" whom we met in the introduction, simply made hats andcaps of various designs and quality in their shops and sold them atretail. These shops were often left to the wife or an older child tomanage while the father peddled merchandise door to door in town, or inthe countryside. Others bought goods in Montreal, either from localhatters, or from importers, and peddled them, often with other items, inrural Quebec. Some furriers sold at retail and wholesale in stores inMontreal. Such a pair was Bernard Levin (Henry) Bernard Levin CBE (19 August 1928 - 7 August 2004) was an English journalist, author and broadcaster.Early lifeHe was educated at Christ's Hospital (which he found difficult because of his Jewish origins) and at the London School of Economics, where he and Moses Davis, Germansdescribed as "decent men of their class", who had asubstantial store on Notre Dame Street where, since 1859, they also hadsold clothing. (42) Some bought up furs for export. Abraham Brahadi, anEnglishman--formerly a professional singer who abandoned his wife andson in London--arrived in Montreal in the late 1840s, and graduallydeveloped an active business which became so fashionable that itattracted "the better kind of French Retail Custom" trade.(43) Given the prominence of Jews in the Monteal clothing trade by about1900, it is surprising that there were far fewer Jewish clothiers thanhatters, capmakers, and furriers. The most prominent clothier from themid-1830s until 1868 was William Benjamin who, with his brothers, Samueland Henry, owned three distinct but interconnected businesses: clothing,dry goods dry goodspl.n.Textiles, clothing, and related articles of trade. Also called soft goods.dry goodsnpl (COMM) → mercer��a sgdry goods, and carpets. Each was operated by one of the brothers. (44)By the end of the 1840s, their aggregate worth was estimated at about$200,000 and their thriving dry goods and clothing outlets were rated asthe best retail stores in town. They enjoyed a high rating withcreditors in New York and England, especially with a family firm inManchester. By 1860, however, they had tumbled into serious trouble.Their trade had declined over the previous year or so, according to onereport in November 1860, "on account of the prejudice felt towardthem as Jews." though another report stated that "the retailbusiness in which they are engaged is not successful owing to owing toprep.Because of; on account of: I couldn't attend, owing to illness.owing toprep → debido a, por causa decompetition." (45) Not having made the grade for whatever reason,in 1861 they closed out all their operations, except for a wholesale drygoods outlet in Quebec, which they left with William. They moved back toManchester where Samuel and Henry set up a dry goods export business. Only a handful of Montreal Jews were involved in the manufacture ofreadymade apparel. As early as the mid-1840s, the Moss brothers--Davidand Edward--who had been in the importing clothing business in Montrealsince 1836, were manufacturing clothing--men's work clothes, itappears--on an enormous scale. (46) They began production in their ownfactory next to the Lachine canal, where, by 1856, they employed 800people. By that time they were exporting $200,000 worth of clothing toMelbourne, Australia, where their two brothers had wholesale and retailoutlets. (47) They were known to be rich, not only from their lucrativeclothing business, but also because of their highly profitable sidelineof private banking, in which they lent out money and "shavednotes," as the Dun reporter disparagingly dis��par��age?tr.v. dis��par��aged, dis��par��ag��ing, dis��par��ag��es1. To speak of in a slighting or disrespectful way; belittle. See Synonyms at decry.2. To reduce in esteem or rank. described it, bydiscounting commercial paper. (48) This sideline was so lucrative that,in March 1858, the Mosses announced that they intended to give upmanufacturing to concentrate on banking. Instead they scaled down andretired to England in March 1864 giving the business to their sons,Samuel and Jacob, (Edward's) and Jacob and Hyam, (David's.)(49) The two pairs of brothers, with occasional guidance from theirfathers in London, expanded operations. By January 1873, they had about$250,000 invested in fixed and working capital and had expanded so muchthat they were selling merchandise on doubtful credit, to "a weakclass of customers," as Dun's reporter put it. But they werewilling to take these risks because handsome profits on good accountsmore than compensated for losses on a few bad ones. By 1876, Samuel hadbecome the principal partner in the firm. (50) Finally, there was Moses Gutman, an American, who, though trainedas an engraver, gave up the trade a few years after he emigrated toCanada in 1857 (51) to work for the Mosses for about nine months as aninvoice clerk. He then joined the Benjamins in their Quebec outlet as abookkeeper, meanwhile getting to know something about the clothingbusiness. Mona Lesser, a salesman for a major New York hoop skirt hoop skirtn.A long full skirt belled out with a series of connected circular supports. manufacturer, moved to Montreal in 1860 and formed a partnership withGutman in 1863. They manufactured goods manufactured goodsnpl → manufacturas fpl; bienes mpl manufacturadosmanufactured goodsnpl → produits manufactur��sin Montreal for the local cityand country markets. Gutman served as production manager; he started offemploying 28 girls to manufacture low-priced lines. Lesser was thesalesman, and sold in the countryside more than in the city, probablybecause their cheaper goods were more marketable there. He soon emergedas the principal partner and, even though he was an undischargedbankrupt, he commanded substantial credit in New York, where the firmbought almost all of its supplies. Dun's reporters, therefore, werecautious about this firm even though its owners were deemed to behard-working and steady men, who apparently did not seek credit inMontreal. By May 1869, Gutman and Lesser were "selling goods atcutting prices and pushing trade too hard for their limited means,"a practise which the reporter deemed to be "a little toosharp." Gutman left the firm in 1871, while Lesser carried on. BySeptember 1874, however, he was in serious financial trouble. "Thisstate of things," it was reported, "has been occasioned by themany rapid changes of fashion entailing losses to this customers andultimately on him by which his capital was used up." After thepartnership ended, Gutman teamed up in 1874 with two other partners,Edward Morris Edward Morris (d. 1913) was President of Morris & Company, one of the three main meat-packing companies in Chicago. In 1890, he married Helen Swift a member of one of the other big three meat-packing families. Their daughter Muriel became a renowned psychiatrist. and Alexander Saunders, to manufacture gloves, and openedan outlet for them in Toronto. (52) Reviewing the activity of Jews in the clothing business, one is ledto conclude that, with one or two noteworthy exceptions, there were fewsparkling performances. The exceptions, those of the Mosses and theBenjamins, were either well-supported by continuous credits from familyabroad, or were based upon substantial cash and merchandise in hand.Even in clothing manufacturing where Jews later were so successful, afew were only beginning to establish inroads at mid-century. Apparelproduction in Montreal was booming by the early 1870s. (53) But all themajor Montreal manufacturers, aside from Moss's, were owned andoperated by Anglo-Celts like Hollis Shorey, Edward O'Brien Edward O'Brien may refer to: Edward Joseph Harrington O'Brien, the American author. Edward O'Brien (Irish Republican), the IRA member. , EdwardSmall, and the Peck brothers. Overall then, Jews, were essentially marginal men in the world ofMontreal's business from the 1840s to the 1870s when all economicsectors were experiencing massive, if uneven, growth. With a few notableexceptions, they were small, very weak retailers and peddlers ofjewellery, fancy goods, tobacco and cheap clothing--many of them drivenfrom their trades by the ill winds of the business cycle, bad luck,mismanagement mis��man��age?tr.v. mis��man��aged, mis��man��ag��ing, mis��man��ag��esTo manage badly or carelessly.mis��manage��ment n. , incompetence, or undercapitalization. Throughout thisperiod there also were some 16 Jews who operated various smallbusinesses as butchers, bankers, agents, restaurateurs, auctioneers.They too were transitional figures who drifted into Montreal for a fewyears and then, blown over by a bad season or two, moved on to try theirluck somewhere else. Was this because of anti-Semitism? Except in one case, that of theBenjamins, there is no evidence that it mattered significantly enough tohave dictated business failure. In the competitive, if not cut-throat,world of Montreal business in the mid-19th century, a Jew appears tohave been as welcome a creditor or client as anyone else--provided, ofcourse, he was good for his commitments. That is what the Dun creditreports were for. If no one wanted to do business with Jews, it isunlikely that they would have been reported on along with all theothers. Clearly, non-Jews did business with Jews despite theexistence--possibly even the prevalence--of attitudes that held Jews incontempt, fear, or mistrust. To the Anglo-Celts and to theFrench-Canadians they were, after all, an alien cultural element, mostof them relatively new to the scene. In the 1840s and 1850s and for along time to come, Montreal business was characterized by a considerabledegree of the ethnic segmentation which had existed since the late 18thcentury. Suspicion was not limited to Jews. Irish and Americanbusinessmen in Montreal deeply resented dominance by the Scottish"old-boy" network of practically all sectors of the localeconomy; while French-Canadian businessmen seem to have operated largelyin their own sphere. These business networks continued to exist andimmigrant Jews--or other outsiders--would not likely have been invitedinto the potentially profitable railway stock floatations and otherlucrative ventures that were promoted by Montreal's established,rich, and politically well-connected businessmen. Everyone, Jewsincluded, understood that was the way business was done. Who, exceptthose under duress, would share such deals with perfect strangers--andwith Jews, to boot? Montreal Jewish businessmen could not have beenunacquainted with anti-Semitism before they immigrated and were likelynot surprised to encounter it in Canada. Besides, it appears that most immigrant Jews even preferred doingbusiness with fellow Jews, and some of their firms were family affairs Family Affairs is a British soap opera. The flagship soap on five, it was the first programme to air on the channel on March 30, 1997, the channel's launch night. The serial was broadcast in half-hour episodes, screening each weeknight. ,a few even transatlantic in scope. The Dun reports time and againcomplained that it was extremely difficult to get information aboutJewish businessmen and that, when possible, Jews seemed to prefer usingtheir credit with British and New York connections--thus often eschewingopportunities for credit in Monteal--and that some Jews were livingbetter than their assumed volume of business would allow, a sign thattheir real business situation was unknown. Jews may have operated on theassumption that credit supplied by family or friends was more reliablethan bank loans, which could be withdrawn without notice, and thatrelatives and partners were more trustworthy than strangers. Yet, while such attitudes were certainly not confined only toJews--the same patterns are noticeable among Montreal's Scottishbusinessmen up to the 1840s and 1850s--Jews did carry a unique historyof persecution. In Germany and Poland, Jews had long suffered fromdisabilities inflicted by the authorities, one of these disabilitiesbeing the virtual confiscation confiscationIn law, the act of seizing property without compensation and submitting it to the public treasury. Illegal items such as narcotics or firearms, or profits from the sale of illegal items, may be confiscated by the police. Additionally, government action (e.g. of accumulated wealth through impositionsand special Jew taxes. (54) Secretiveness, therefore was a hallmark ofthis sub-culture. Authorities and institutions were seen as real orpotential oppressors. It was perfectly natural that such attitudesshould be conveyed into new locations and continue to prevail amongJewish immigrants, notwithstanding the fact that Montreal's economywas undergoing gradual modernization which created pressures forconformity, structures of uniformity, and mechanisms for impersonalcollaborative action. Yet, modernization was clearly neither uniform norcomprehensive in all sectors of business and to all cultures operatingwithin it. Older patterns survived because they were needed and becausethey continued, however imperfectly, to work for those who adhered tothem. Not everybody conformed to the Anglo-Saxon norm of the"modern" businessman, as historians Paul-Andre Linteau andJean-Claude Robert have pointed out in their study of vigorous FrenchCanadian French Canadiann.A Canadian of French descent.French-Ca��na entrepreneurial success in the 19th century Montreal urban realestate market. (55) Despite the persistence of traditional practices, Jews were partlybeing drawn into the modernization and diversification ofMontreal's economy, but only on its periphery. Their pastshaped--if it did not rigidly govern--their business attitudes andbehaviour. They were mostly marginal to the major transformations in thecity's economic life underway between the mid-1840s and the 1870s.Aside from the Josephs in the tobacco business and the Mosses in theapparel manufacturing trade, Jews were simply not present in the dynamicsectors of Montreal's industrialization industrializationProcess of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and like shipbuilding, flourmilling, sugar refining and the flourishing and multi-faceted ironfabrication shops located in the industrial quarters along the river andthe Lachine canal. Nor were they involved in the city's flourishingfinancial sector of banks and insurance companies; they were not amongthe promoters of the ambitious railway and steamboat companies. Incommerce, Jews in this period were absent from businesses which importediron goods, wines, liquors, and textiles and from those exporting grainand timber. But their absence from them all was not because ofanti-Semitism, but principally because of their lack of experience andconnections in those businesses. Virtually all the adult male Jews of Montreal in this era werepetty merchants in the four fairly specific business sectors discussedabove. With only a few exceptions, notably the Joseph brothers, nonewere involved in Montreal's great financial, transportation, andmanufacturing sectors--and numerous powerful incorporated companies--forwhich the city became famous and through which it was to dominate thenational economy that emerged towards the end of this period. Jews beganas marginal men in the sense that they engaged mostly--there were a fewexceptions--in the petty commerce of jewellery and fancy goods, tobacco,dry goods and cheap clothing, much of it sold to fellow Jewishstorekeepers living in towns and villages, or peddled through the ruralareas of Upper and Lower Canada Lower Canada:see Quebec, province, Canada. . The sale of clothing, both wholesaleand retail, provided a major springboard for Jewish entry into what wasalready by 1871 one of Montreal's leading industries, themanufacture of men's and boys' apparel, while tobaccomerchandising created another major manufacturing opportunity.Nevertheless, the efflorescence efflorescence:see hydrate. of the Jewish presence in these sectorslay some 20 years in the future. Besides the context of Montreal's mid-19th century businessworld, there is another context for this inquiry. Those seeking toexplain Jewish history must look for the major points where the Jewishpast intersected with that of its surrounding cultures. The historian,Yosef Chaim The name Yosef Chaim can refer to a few people: Chacham Yosef Chaim of Baghdad (1832 - 1909), better known as the Ben Ish Chai ("Son of Man (who) Lives") Yosef Chaim Brenner (1881 - 1921), a pioneer in Hebrew literature Yerushalmi, while addressing the dilemmas of Jewish historyin the modern world in his trenchant work Zakhor (Memory), suggests thatthe secularization of this subject is essential if it is to berationally understood. (56) As opposed to metahistory, memory,nostalgia, and myth, he writes, "the Jewish past unfolds before thehistorian not as unity but, to an extent unanticipated by hisnineteenth-century predecessors, as multiplicity and relativity."(57) Part of that historical investigation is the appreciation of thecontexts in which Jews lived. Whatever may have been continuous inJewish life, no matter where it was experienced, shaped, or mutated byconditions of its new environment. The argument here is that businesshistory provides an important point of intersection of Jews and thevarious urban milieux in which they lived. The business historian must seriously consider culture as well asthe material context in order to understand the behaviour ofbusinessmen. Profit maximization In economics, profit maximization is the process by which a firm determines the price and output level that returns the greatest profit. There are several approaches to this problem. cannot proceed efficiently in apolitical and social environment that is antithetical an��ti��thet��i��cal? also an��ti��thet��icadj.1. Of, relating to, or marked by antithesis.2. Being in diametrical opposition. See Synonyms at opposite. , or even lukewarm,to such a goal. The history of Jews in Canada--and their businessbehaviour in particular--were byproducts of both culture, or memory, andof context, or environment. In mid-19th century Montreal, we are able tosee a snapshot--maybe somewhat smudged in places--of a group of Jewishimmigrant petty bourgeois in the processes of adapting to an environmentthat was itself changing. The importance of this story lies not so muchin its uniqueness, as in the insights it might provide into both cultureand context, and in the ways in which both were being jostled and partlytransformed by the interaction. Notes (1) Harvard University Harvard University,mainly at Cambridge, Mass., including Harvard College, the oldest American college.Harvard CollegeHarvard College, originally for men, was founded in 1636 with a grant from the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. . R. G. Dun and Company. Credit LedgersMontreal 1845-1876, 3 vols. (2) Ibid., I, p. 251. (3) Charles Cole, "The Montreal Jewish Community in 1861and1871: Its size, occupational and ethnic composition, relative tocomparable Jewish communities in the United States" (Honoursundergraduate thesis, Department of Geography, 1983 (See Appendices A(1861) and B (1871). (4) Benjamin G. Sack, History of the Jews in Canada canada has the world's fourth-largest Jewish population.[1] According to the Canada 2001 Census, there are an estimated 351,000 Jews currently living in Canada. (Montreal,1965). See chapters four and five. (5) Ibid. (6) Elinor Kyte Senior (in collaboration with James H. Lambert),"David David," DCB DCB DichlorobenzeneDCB David Crowder BandDCB Dictionary of Canadian BiographyDCB Device Control BlockDCB Double Cantilever BeamDCB Disk Coprocessor BoardDCB Dependent Care BenefitsDCB Data Control BlockDCB Direct Copper Bonding , VI, 179-181; Gerald Tulchinsky, "TheConstruction of the First Lachine Canal, 1815-26," (McGillUniversity McGill University,at Montreal, Que., Canada; coeducational; chartered 1821, opened 1829. It was named for James McGill, who left a bequest to establish it. Its real development dates from 1855 when John W. Dawson became principal. , M.A., 1960) 36. (7) Carman Car´mann. 1. A man whose employment is to drive, or to convey goods in, a car or car. Miller "Moses Judah Hayes," DCB IX, 379-381.See also Christopher Armstrong and H. V. Nelles, Monopoly's Moment:The Organization and Regulation of Canadian Utilities Canadian Utilities Limited TSX:CU.NV is a member of the ATCO Group of companies. It is a Calgary, Alberta company operating businesses in power generation, utilities, logistics and energy services and technologies. It has than 5,000 employees. , 1830-1930(Philadelphia, 1986) 13, 14, 15. (8) Miller, op.cit., 380; G. Tulchinsky, "Studies ofBusinessmen in the Development of Transportation and Industry inMontreal, 1837 to 1853," (University of Toronto Research at the University of Toronto has been responsible for the world's first electronic heart pacemaker, artificial larynx, single-lung transplant, nerve transplant, artificial pancreas, chemical laser, G-suit, the first practical electron microscope, the first cloning of T-cells, , PHD, 1971) 465. (9) Armstrong/Nelles, op.cit., 78. (10) See Congregation Sha'ar Hashamayim, 1845-1946 (Montreal,1946) for the history of this congregation. (11) Benjamin Braude, "Jewish Economic History--ReviewEssay," Association for Jewish Studies Newsletter, 19 (1977), Feb.,25-29. (12) Moses Rischin, The Promised City: New York's Jews,1870-1914 (New York, 1970). See chapters four and five. Lloyd P.Gartner, The Jewish Immigrant in England, 1870-1914 (London, 1973). Seechapters two and three. (13) Judith E. Endelman, The Jewish Community of Indianapolis, 1840to the Present (Bloomington, 1984); Robert A. Rockaway, The Jews ofDetroit From the Beginning, 1762-1914 (Detroit, 1986); Michael Brown Michael or Mike Brown may refer to:In politics: Michael Brown (Liberal Democrats donor) (1966-), a Scottish businessman, convicted for perjury, largest-ever donor to the Liberal Democrats ,Jew or Juir: Jews, French Canadians and Anglo-Canadians, 1759-1914(Philadelphia, 1987). (14) Steven Hertzberg, Strangers Within the City: The Jews ofAtlanta, 1845-1915 (Philadelphia, 1978). William Toll, The Making of AnEthnic Middle Class: Portland Jewry over Four Generations (Albany,1982). (15) Toll, op. cit. (16) Ibid. (17) David A. Gerber, "Cutting Out Shylock: EliteAnti-Semitism and the Quest for Verb 1. quest for - go in search of or hunt for; "pursue a hobby"quest after, go after, pursuelook for, search, seek - try to locate or discover, or try to establish the existence of; "The police are searching for clues"; "They are searching for the Moral Order in the Mid-NineteenthCentury American Marketplace," David A. Gerber (ed.), Anti-Semitismin American History (Urbana, 1986), 201-232, But, see Elliott Ashkenazi,The Business of Jews in Louisiana, 1840-1875 (Tuscaloosa, 1988). (18) Ibid., 223. (19) D. McCalla, The Upper Canada Trade, 1834-1872: A Study of theBuchanans' Business (Toronto, 1979). Gerald Tulchinsky, The RiverBarons: The Montreal Business Community and the Growth of Industry andTransportation 1837-1853 (Toronto, 1977). (20) Cole, op. cit. (21) Dun, Montreal, I, 193. (22) Ibid., 262. (23) Sack, op. cit., 154, 156. (24) Dun, Montreal, I, 232. (25) Ibid., 231. (26) Ibid., 255. (27) Dun, Montreal, I, 125. (28) Ibid. II, 105. (29) Ibid. I, 138, 256 (30) Ibid. II, 217. (31) Sack, op. cit., passim PASSIM - A simulation language based on Pascal.["PASSIM: A Discrete-Event Simulation Package for Pascal", D.H Uyeno et al, Simulation 35(6):183-190 (Dec 1980)]. . (32) A. D. Hart (ed.) The Jew in Canada (Montreal, 1924). (33) Dun, Montreal, I, 192. (34) Hart, op. cit., 330. (35) Dun, Montreal, I, 192. (36) Ibid. (37) Hart, op. cit., 123. (38) Dun, Montreal, II, 84. (39) Ibid., I, 409. (40) Ibid., I, 12. (41) Ibid., I, 177. (42) Ibid., I, 434. (43) Ibid., I, 434. (44) Ibid. I, 28, 137; II, 38. See also Sack, op. cit., 115-116. (45) Ibid. (46) Tulchinsky, River Barons, 219-220. (47) Montreal in 1856, 46. (48) Dun, Montreal, I, 84. (49) Ibid. (50) Ibid. (51) Ibid., II. (52) Ibid. (53) Gerald Tulchinsky, "Aspects of the Clothing ManufacturingIndustry in Canada, 1850s-1914," (unpublished paper delivered toBusiness History Conference, Trent University, 1984), 18-20. (54) Samuel Ettinger, "The Modern Period," in H. H. BenSasson (ed.), A History of the Jewish People (Cambridge, Mass., 1976),717-1096. (55) Paul-Andre Linteau and Jean-Claude Robert, "Proprietefonciere et societe a Montreal: une hypothese," Revued'histoire de l'amerique francaise," 28, no. 1. Juin,(1974), 45-65. (56) Yosef Chaim Yerushalmi, Zakhor: Jewish History and JewishMemory (Seattle, 1982), 89-91. (57) Ibid., 96.