Maritime archaeology in Northern Ireland. (Special section).

Maritime archaeology in Northern Ireland. (Special section). Key-words: intertidal in��ter��tid��al?adj.Of or being the region between the high tide mark and the low tide mark.in archaeology, maritime archaeology Maritime archaeology (also known as marine archaeology) is a discipline that studies human interaction with the sea, lakes and rivers through the study of vessels, shore side facilities, cargoes, human remains and submerged landscapes. , maritimecultural landscape, foreshore foreshore:see beach. , seabed geophysics, shipwrecks Introduction The study of maritime archaeology is a relatively new activity inNorthern Ireland Northern Ireland:see Ireland, Northern. Northern IrelandPart of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland occupying the northeastern portion of the island of Ireland. Area: 5,461 sq mi (14,144 sq km). Population (2001): 1,685,267. . This paper introduces the approach that has beenadopted in investigating the maritime cultural landscape and takes adetailed look at the maritime archaeology of Strangford Lough Strangford Lough(străng`fərd lŏkh), inlet of the Irish Sea, 17 mi (27 km) long and 4 mi (6.4 km) wide, between Ards and Down dists., E Northern Ireland, entered through a 5-mi (8-km) strait. . Only in the last decade has government in Northern Ireland beenresponsible for the management of maritime archaeology. The Departmentof the Environment agency, Environment and Heritage Service (EHS EHS Environmental Health and SafetyEHS Early Head Start (pre-school program)EHS Extremely Hazardous Substance (EPA)EHS Environmental Health ServicesEHS Exchange Hosted Services ),administers the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 in Northern Ireland'sterritorial waters territorial waters:see waters, territorial. territorial watersWaters under the sovereign jurisdiction of a nation or state, including both marginal sea and inland waters. . Having no knowledge of the subject and faced withthe management of shipwrecks, EHS first created a register of knownshipwrecks. A Senior Fellow, Colin Breen, was appointed in 1993 in theInstitute of Irish Studies at Queen's University Belfast. Usingdocumentary sources such as Lloyd's List and Lloyd's Register,together with Parliamentary Sessional papers and many other documentarysources, he identified some 3000 wrecks around Northern Ireland'sshort coastline (Breen 1996). Conscious of archaeological surveys of the intertidal zone The intertidal zone, also known as the littoral zone, in marine aquatic environments is the area of the foreshore and seabed that is exposed to the air at low tide and submerged at high tide, i.e., the area between tide marks. elsewhere in Ireland and in the UK, EHS undertook a study of theforeshore of Strangford Lough, a large sea-inlet on the northeast Irishcoast (FIGURE 1). Its initial focus was an intensive survey of theLough's extensive intertidal zone consisting of some 50 sq. km ofvaried terrain of broad mud and sand flats, its narrow boulderforeshores and its islands. Results demonstrated that considerablearchaeology survived on the foreshore from all chronological periods. Anapproximate cut-off date of c. 1900 was adopted. Follow-on work hasincluded a major foreshore excavation as well as a number of minor ones.With recognition that this cultural resource could not be interpretedwithout further archaeological work in the adjoining coastal zone andsub-tidal zone, the scope of the project was widened to include this.After five years of fieldwork, with excellent results, the text is withthe editor and the monograph in now nearing publication (McErlean et al.forthcoming). Such was the quality of the results that EHS staff becamevery aware of the importance of maritime archaeology to an islandsociety (Williams 1996). A gradual process of awareness began to grow inwhich maritime archaeology was seen not simply as relating only toshipwrecks but as a more complex relationship of human activity betweenland and sea. This was remarkably similar to a concept published by theScandinavian archaeologist Christer Westerdahl in 1992. In his paper heproposed the concept of the maritime cultural landscape which signifieshuman utilization (economy) of maritime space by boat: settlement,fishing, hunting, shipping and its attendant sub-cultures, such aspilotage, lighthouse and sea-mark maintenance (Westerdahl 1992). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] In thinking of this broader approach EHS was conscious of thelimitations of its response as a government agency to this new aspect ofarchaeology in Northern Ireland. While it was well placed to record andprotect maritime archaeology, it lacked the ability to undertakeresearch and teaching, which was more truly the role of a universitydepartment. After much negotiation, EHS, in collaboration with theUniversity of Ulster The University of Ulster (UU; Irish: Ollscoil Uladh[2] [3]) is a multi-centre university located in Northern Ireland and is the largest single university on the island of Ireland, discounting the federal , jointly established the Centre for MaritimeArchaeology (CMA CMA - Concert Multithread Architecture from DEC. ) in 1999. This is located at the university'sColeraine campus in the School of Biological & EnvironmentalSciences. Maritime archaeologists were brought together with othercoastal scientists, already in post, in the School's CoastalResearch Group. This partnership delivers the government programme of recording andprotection as well as the university functions of research and teaching.The register of shipwrecks now exists as a section of the NorthernIreland Monuments & Buildings Record (NIMBR). The original record,based on documentary sources, is supplemented by evidence from aprogramme of geophysical investigation of the inshore in��shore?adv. & adj.1. Close to a shore.2. Toward or coming toward a shore.inshoreAdjectivein or on the water, but close to the shore: coastal waters(Quinn et al. 2000). Investigations using side-scan sonar, a Chirp See chirped pulse and CHRP. sub-bottom profiler and a proton precession magnetometer have led to thelocation of many wreck sites and other cultural anomalies on the seabed,accurately located by a Digital Global Positioning System Global Positioning System:see navigation satellite. Global Positioning System (GPS)Precise satellite-based navigation and location system originally developed for U.S. military use. (DGPS (Differential GPS) See GPS augmentation system. ). Thisprovides evidence of archaeological sites on the seabed, which, with itsaccurate locations, is a more manageable form of evidence for EHS. ASites & Monuments Record of archaeological sites in the intertidalzone is in the process of being created by CMA staff and a fullintertidal survey of the Northern Ireland coast is envisaged. Specific archaeological legislation is available with theProtection of Wrecks Act 1973 and the Historic Monuments andArchaeological Objects (NI) Order 1995. These do much to protectshipwrecks and other submerged sites, while archaeological objects areprotected by the Merchant Shipping Act 1995. The Planning Order 1. An order issued by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) to initiate execution planning. The planning order will normally follow a commander's estimate and a planning order will normally take the place of the CJCS alert order. (NI)1991 provides some protection for sites on the foreshore down tolow-water mark (LWM LWMabbr.low-water mark ). Policies contained in Planning Policy Statement 6:Planning, Archaeology and the Built Heritage, while specifically aimedat sites above LWM, are considered by EHS to extend in principle to theseabed to 12 miles offshore (DOE 1999). Commercial developments on theseabed such as oil and gas exploration, aggregate extraction, dredging,shell-fish farming, dumping at sea and other activities are allregulated by other environmental legislation. EHS administers some ofthese laws and is consulted on all the other laws on environment andheritage issues regulating these activities (Williams 2001). Research is a major part of the work of the CMA and aspects ofmaritime archaeology are under investigation throughout Ireland and inEast Africa (Breen 2001a; 2001b). In 1992, faced with the new responsibility of maritime archaeology,the archaeological profession in Ireland had few members with therelevant skills. These had to be learned by those already in post and itbecame clear that a post-graduate training course was needed. TheUniversity of Ulster now offers M.Sc and Ph.D courses in maritimearchaeology. Information about these can be found on the web at<http:/ /www.ulst.ac.uk/faculty/science/crg/cma.htm>. With a goodteaching provision the CMA hopes to increase the quality of knowledgewithin the archaeological profession over the years. The maritime cultural landscape of Strangford Lough Strangford Lough was chosen for the region's first large-scaleintertidal survey for a number of reasons. The first consideration wasthe size of its intertidal zone, consisting of some 50 sq. km of variedterrain of broad mud and sand flats and narrow boulder foreshores.Another consideration was the density and high quality of thearchaeological sites on land surrounding the Lough Lough(lŏkh, lŏk). For names of Irish lakes and inlets beginning with "Lough," see second part of element; e.g., for Lough Corrib, see Corrib, Lough. See lake. which, potentially,would be reflected on the archaeology of the foreshore. Fieldworkstarted during the summer months in 1995 and subsequently continued on aseasonal basis to 2000 when complete coverage of the intertidal zone wasachieved. Although the primary focus of the survey was the foreshore, itwas recognized that further research was needed in the adjoining coastaland subtidal zone in order to interpret its significance and the scopeof the survey was expanded to encompass this. The survey technique adopted consisted of closely spaced linewalking with a small team, carried out during a four-hour tidal window,two hours before and two hours after low water. All features of possiblearchaeological significance encountered were recorded on speciallydesigned pro-forma sheets with a short description, sketch andphotographs. The aim of the survey was to attempt coverage of the entireLough to provide, for the first time, a broad overview of a largeintertidal area of the Irish coastline. Given this aim and the shortworking time allowed by the tides and the difficult terrain, fieldsurvey had to be carried out with speed. Pre-survey work includedcartographic car��tog��ra��phy?n.The art or technique of making maps or charts.[French cartographie : carte, map (from Old French, from Latin charta, carta, paper made from papyrus research, a documentary survey of both primary andsecondary sources. In the former category, landed estate papers provedvaluable, and 18th- and 19th-century local newspapers supplied usefulinformation. Some dedicated foreshore air survey was carried out duringthe low water period and existing vertical air surveys, black and white,colour and infrared, were studied. Follow-on work has included a numberof minor foreshore excavations and one major investigation at athree-phase tide-mill at the Early Medieval period monastery of Nendrum.The survey has amply demonstrated that considerable archaeology surviveson the foreshore from all periods from prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to to the 19th centuryand the results are soon to be published in a survey volume (McErlean etal. forthcoming). The earliest evidence found of former landscapes in StrangfordLough consists of submerged peats and woodland remnants found in theintertidal and subtidal zones, the result of mid-Holocene rising sealevel and the consequent submergence of part of the coastline (FIGURE2). This has provided important information on the Mesolithic coastalenvironment and dated index points for the construction of a localsea-level curve. One of the achievements of the survey was significantlyto increase the previously known Mesolithic sites around the Lough andindications are that further specifically designed field survey willfurther increase the number (McCartan forthcoming). The actual nature ofMesolithic settlement is still uncertain and awaits a programme ofexcavation, but it is not unreasonable to suggest that many of the sitesrepresent long-term base camps in the hunter-gatherer-fisher subsistencestrategy based on Strangford's rich resources of fish andshellfish. The importance of the latter was demonstrated by thediscovery of 29 shell middens, many associated with Late Mesolithiclithics. Most are specifically oyster (Ostrea edulis) middens,suggesting that the Lough's rich oyster beds were an importantresource. The concentration of Mesolithic material around the Loughopens up a potentially very important aspect of the coastal Mesolithiccultures of Ireland and a research programme to capitalize on Cap´i`tal`ize on`v. t. 1. To turn (an opportunity) to one's advantage; to take advantage of (a situation); to profit from; as, to capitalize onan opponent's mistakes s>. thesefindings is being formulated. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] One Neolithic period discovery on the foreshore was that of alarge, well-preserved oak logboat (FIGURE 3) dated by radiocarbondetermination to 3499-3032 cal BC (GRN-25435). This adds another exampleto the small number of logboats known from maritime contexts, asdistinct from lakes and rivers, and demonstrates their use in estuariesand sheltered in-shore waters (Fry 2000). [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Undoubtedly the most interesting discovery to emerge from thesurvey was the sequence of three 7th- and 8th-century tide-mills,currently the earliest dated examples of this type of site in Europe(McErlean & Crothers 2001). During the survey a number of enigmaticstone structures were observed at low water on the small, sheltered bayimmediately to the east of the Early Medieval period monastery ofNendrum on Mahee Island. Excavation was carried out to determine theirsignificance and established that the structures belonged to a sequenceof three phases of tide-mills with stone embankments, constructed topower mills for the populous monastic community and its estate. In theabsence of fresh-water streams on the relatively small Mahee Island, themonastic community had turned to tidal power as an alternative. Thefirst phase of the tide-mill was represented by a linear band of stonesacross the bay, which proved on excavation to be the remains of a verysubstantial tide-millpond embankment. From oak piles used in itsstructure, it was possible, by the use of dendrochrononolgy, to date itsconstruction between AD 619 and 621. In the late 7th or early 8thcentury the first mill was abandoned and a new second phase mill andmillpond mill��pond?n.A pond formed by a milldam.millpondNouna pool which provides water to turn a millwheelNoun 1. were built. This mill, which has not yet been accurately dated,in turn was destroyed to build a much more sophisticated stonetide-mill. This exceptionally well-preserved phase three mill has beendated by dendrocronology to AD 787 (FIGURE 4). The stone wheelhouse wheel��house?n.See pilothouse.wheelhouseNounan enclosed structure on the bridge of a ship from which it is steeredNoun 1. andtidal tailrace tail��race?n.1. The part of a millrace below the water wheel through which the spent water flows.2. A channel for floating away mine tailings and refuse.Noun 1. had survived virtually intact underneath foreshore mudand silt. Many mill parts were recovered, including millstones,wheel-hubs and paddles. The outstanding feature of this last mill on thesite was its massive wedge-shaped stone flume, carved out of two largeblocks of sandstone, designed to direct a high-pressure jet of water onto the paddles of a horizontal mill wheel. The tide-mill sequence atNendrum provides splendid evidence of the increasing sophistication so��phis��ti��cate?v. so��phis��ti��cat��ed, so��phis��ti��cat��ing, so��phis��ti��catesv.tr.1. To cause to become less natural, especially to make less naive and more worldly.2. ofIrish mill technology and the use of tidal power at this early date.Above all, the discovery through systematic fieldwork of this foreshoresite, followed by targeted excavation, demonstrates in a dramatic waythe great importance of intertidal surveys in expanding the horizons ofIrish archaeology. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Historic coastal settlement is essentially focused on theexploitation of maritime resources, of which fishing was among the mostimportant. The significant role played by foreshore fishing in the pastis demonstrated by the discovery in Strangford Lough of a large numberof intertidal fish traps, designed as barriers to trap fish on theebbing tide. The earliest type of fish trap, with examples dating fromthe 7th to the 12th centuries AD, are relatively simple V-shaped wattle wattle,in botany: see acacia. structures that survive only at foundation level (FIGURE 5). In the 13thcentury the wooden traps were superceded by more sophisticated largestone traps, of varied design and often in the same locations as theearlier wooden traps (FIGURE 6). For historical reasons, the stone trapsappear to have been introduced to Strangford by Cistercians from Cumbriaand the Solway Firth. In recent years with the growth of intertidalsurveys, fish traps have been found in increasing numbers around theIrish and British coasts and are now recognized as one of the stockcomponents of the maritime cultural landscape. The well-dated sequencesof traps found in Strangford Lough are of particular importance as theyprovide evidence for a substantial increase in foreshore fishing, usingfixed structures, in the 7th and 8th centuries as a part of thesystematic exploitation of the shore. The Strangford evidence alsodemonstrates that this resource continued to be important until the late16th century. [FIGURES 5-6 OMITTED] Many sites encountered during the survey relate to the wide andunder-researched topic of the archaeology of landing places. InStrangford Lough these structures range from simple natural landinglocations through cleared parts of the shore and small-scale farmjetties to large quays, piers and developed port waterfronts. The archaeological evidence indicates that the 18th and 19thcenturies were the period of maximum exploitation of the foreshore.Approximately 80% of the sites discovered belong to this period and mostrelate to structures associated with the kelp industry. The rise of thekelp industry is largely undocumented but during the early years of the18th century seaweed ash or kelp was increasingly used in industrialprocesses as an impure im��pure?adj. im��pur��er, im��pur��est1. Not pure or clean; contaminated.2. Not purified by religious rite; unclean.3. Immoral or sinful: impure thoughts. source of the alkali salt, soda ash (sodiumcarbonate). Kelp was extensively used in the manufacture of glass andsoap and in linen bleaching. During the 18th century the price of kelprose steadily, leading to increasing levels of exploitation of foreshoreseaweed, and this resulted in a proliferation of related structuresalong the shore. The most visible evidence of kelp production was thesubdivision of the foreshore by low stone walls demarcating gatheringrights. Other features of the industry encountered were the remains ofprimitive kilns in which the seaweed was burned and kelp houses wherethe finished product was stored before being transported to market fromassociated landing places. The demand became so great that from themiddle of the 18th century seaweed was being cultivated as a crop by thelaying-out of areas of sandy foreshore with stone grids to encour-usefulin site detection but requires close follow-up fieldwork, and for thePost-Medieval period an integration of the historical documentation atall stages is essential. The survey also raises a number of issues relating to maritimecultural heritage which require urgent consideration. It has raisedawareness of the threat to maritime heritage from development, naturalerosion and neglect. Although Strangford Lough is relatively shelteredin comparison to more open parts of the coast, there is still coastalerosion on many of its archaeological sites. Examples of sites beingactively destroyed by wave action were encountered, and some sites werein the last stages of eradication. The formulation of a protectionstrategy is seen as a matter of urgency. The scale of the problem willonly emerge from further coastal survey. One strategy being used wherethe threat is acute is rapid excavation to retrieve as much informationas possible. Further background on the coastal archaeology in the regioninformation can be found in McErlean (1999), but it is clear thatarchaeologists are only at the start of an interesting new phase ofresearch of this previously neglected aspect of Irish archaeology. References BREEN, C. 1996. Maritime archaeology in Northern Ireland: aninterim statement, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 25(1):55-65. 2001a. Integrated marine investigations on the historic shipwreck shipwreck,complete or partial destruction of a vessel as a result of collision, fire, grounding, storm, explosion, or other mishap. In the ancient world sea travel was hazardous, but in modern times the number of shipwrecks due to nonhostile causes has steadily La Surveillante. Coleraine: University of Ulster. CMA Monograph 1. 2001b. East African coastal archaeology, Archaeology Ireland15(2,56): 22-3. DOE. 1999. Planning Policy Statement 6: Planning, Archaeology andthe Built Heritage. Belfast: Department of the Environment. FRY, M. 2000. Coiti, logboats from Northern Ireland. Belfast: EHS/DOENI DOENI Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland . Northern Ireland Archaeological Monograph 4. MCCARTAN, S. Forthcoming. Report on archaeological objects from theStrangford Lough region in museum collections, in McErlean et al.(forthcoming). MCERLEAN, T. 1999. Maritime archaeology in Northern Ireland, inIrish Sea Forum, Seminar report, Marine Archaeology of the Irish Sea,University of Liverpool The University of Liverpool is a university in the city of Liverpool, England. HistoryThe University was established in 1881 as University College Liverpool, admitting its first students in 1882. , 14 January 1999: 77-89. Liverpool: Universityof Liverpool. MCERLEAN, T. & N. CROTHERS. 2001. Tidal power in the seventhand eighth centuries AD, Archaeology Ireland 15 (2,56): 10-14. MCERLEAN, T., R. MCCONKEY & W. FORSYTH. Forthcoming. Themaritime cultural landscape of Strangford Lough. QUINN, R., J.A.G. COOPER & B. WILLIAMS. 2000. Marinegeophysical investigations of the inshore coastal waters of NorthernIreland, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 29(2): 294-8. WESTERDAHL, C. 1992. The Maritime cultural landscape, InternationalJournal of Nautical Archaeology 2(1): 5-14. WILLIAMS, B. 1996. Inter-tidal archaeology in Strangford Lough,Archaeology Ireland 10(3,37): 14-16. 2001. Commercial developments and their impact on maritimeheritage: the Northern Ireland experience, International Journal ofNautical Archaeology 30(1): 5-11. BRIAN WILLIAMS & TOM MCERLEAN * * Williams, Environment & Heritage Service, 5-33 Hill Street,Belfast BT1 2LA, Northern Ireland. brian.williams@doeni.gov.uk McErlean,Centre for Maritime Archaeology, School of Biological &Environmental Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine BT52 1SA,Northern Ireland. tc.mcerlean@ulst.ac.uk